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Толкование Перевод

101 loop

петля; замкнутая система; рамка, рамочная антенна; контур; виток; петля Нестерова; выполнять петлю

1/2 circular loop — половина круглой петли

1/2 climbing loop and 1/2 roll — иммельман, половина восходящей петли с полубочкой

1/2 loop and 1/2 roll 45° descending — половина петли с полубочкой на снижении под углом 45°

1/2 loop and 1/2 roll — полупетля, иммельман, полупетля с полубочкой, половина петли, заканчивающаяся полубочкой

1/2 loop — половина петли

1/2 roll and 1/2 loop — одинарный переворот [полубочка] с последующей половиной петли

3/4 loop and 1/2 roll 90° descending — три четверти петли с полубочкой на отвесном снижении

45° ascending half roll and half loop — переворот на горке с углом 45°

90° ascending half roll and half loop — полубочка восходящей вертикали с половиной петли и выходом на нисходящую вертикаль 90°

ascending half roll and inverted half loop — полубочка на восходящей вертикали с половиной обратной петли и выходом на нисходящую вертикаль

inverted half loop and half roll — обратная восходящая полупетля с полубочкой (с выходом в перевёрнутый полет)

loop with a snap roll at the top — петля со штопорной [быстрой, неуправляемой] бочкой в верхней точке

stay in the loop — оставаться в контуре управления [в действии]

take off into a loop — взлетать, выполняя петлю

two loops put together — две слитно выполняемые петли

— arrival loop

— arrowhead loop

— ascending loop

— autopilot loop

— bank control loop

— basic loop

— box loop

— changeover loop

— circular loop

— climbing loop

— closed-circuit cable loop

— continuous loop

— continuous self-erasing loop

— control loop

— cooling fluid loop

— data loop

— descending loop

— diamond loop

— dispersal loop

— diving loop

— dynamic hysteresis loop

— echelon loop

— eight-point loop

— elevator servo loop

— elongated loop

— engine-oif loop

— engines-out loop

— erect loop

— five card loop

— formation loop

— ground loop

— guidance-system loop

— half loop

— half square loop

— hanging loop

— heading control loop

— heat-rejection loop

— hexagonal loop

— individual loop

— inferior loop

— inside ascending loop

— inside climbing loop

— inside descending loop

— inside loop

— inverted ascending loop

— inverted climbing loop

— inverted descending loop

— inverted half loop

— inverted inferior loop

— inverted loop

— inverted normal loop

— inverted outside loop

— liquid heat-transport loop

— loop of cable

— loop the loop

— more-than-four-sides loop

— normal loop

— oblique loop

— octagonal loop

— opposing loops

— opposition loops

— ordinary loop

— outside ascending loop

— outside climbing loop

— outside descending loop

— outside loop

— pitch loop

— pursuit navigation loop

— rocket loop

— servo loop

— sexagonal loop

— shoulder harness loops

— six ship loop

— solo opposing loops

— square loop

— square outside loop

— stowage loops

— taxi-track loop

— thrust-vector control loop

— tight loop

— tracking loop

— trail loop

— triangular loop

— upside down loop

— water loop

— wedge-formation loop

— yaw loop

Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > loop
102 maneuver

маневр; фигура ( пилотажа) ; pl. маневры; маневрировать; выполнять маневр

break off the maneuver — прекращать маневр

combined aerodynamic-propulsive orbital plane change maneuver — комбинированный маневр для поворота [изменения] плоскости орбиты с использованием тяги двигателя и аэродинамических сил

lazy-8 maneuver — фигура «ленивая восьмёрка (горизонтальная восьмёрка с попеременными наборами и снижениями при каждом изменении направления на 90°)

maneuver on the deck — маневр на предельно малой высоте

minimum distance landing maneuver — маневр кратчайшей посадки

orbital plane change maneuver — маневр для поворота плоскости орбиты

position for the maneuver — занимать положение для (начала) маневра

speed brake extension maneuver — маневр с выпуском воздушных тормозов

zero ground speed maneuver — верт. маневр на месте [при нулевой путевой скорости]

— abort maneuver

— accelerate-stop maneuver

— acrobatic maneuver

— adaptation maneuver

— advanced flight maneuver

— aerial maneuver

— aerobatic maneuver

— aerodynamic maneuver

— air combat maneuver

— air maneuver

— aircraft defensive maneuver

— airdrome maneuver

— airfield maneuver

— air-sea maneuvers

— altitude maneuver

— antimissile maneuver

— antisubmarine maneuver

— approach maneuver

— atmospheric maneuver

— attitude hold maneuver

— automatic maneuver

— autorotation maneuver

— autorotative maneuver

— backpack maneuver

— basic maneuver

— bombing maneuver

— breakaway maneuver

— breakup maneuver

— capture maneuver

— catch-up maneuver

— cherry-blossom maneuver

— clearing maneuver

— closing-and-docking maneuver

— combat maneuver

— combined maneuvers

— confidence maneuver

— constant-rolling maneuver

— control-stick-steering maneuver

— conversion maneuver

— conversion/reconversion maneuver

— coordinated maneuver

— correction maneuver

— counterfighter maneuver

— counterflack maneuver

— countermissile maneuver

— decrab maneuver

— delay maneuver

— dive-toss-bombing maneuver

— DLC maneuver

— docking maneuver

— dogleg maneuver

— down maneuver

— downwind maneuver

— duck under maneuver

— elementary flight maneuver

— engine-out maneuver

— entry maneuver

— escape maneuver

— evasive maneuver

— exoatmospheric maneuver

— false maneuver

— fighting maneuver

— final orientation maneuver

— final slowdown maneuver

— flak defensive maneuver

— flare maneuver

— flareout maneuver

— flaring maneuver

— flat yawing maneuver

— flight maneuver

— flight training maneuver

— fly the maneuver

— formation maneuvers

— forward slip maneuver

— glide maneuver

— gliding maneuver

— go-around maneuver

— gravity maneuver

— head-on maneuver

— high-altitude maneuver

— impulse maneuver

— inflight maneuver

— inflight refueling maneuver

— in-plane maneuver

— intermediate orientation maneuver

— interplanetary maneuver

— inverted maneuver

— kick into maneuver

— kick-off drift maneuver

— knife-edge maneuver

— LABS maneuver

— large-disturbance maneuver

— launch maneuver

— leave the maneuver

— longitudinal maneuver

— loop maneuver

— low-acceleration rendezvous maneuver

— low-altitude maneuver

— low-speed maneuver

— maneuver at launch

— maneuver of crabbing

— midcourse maneuver

— near-the-target maneuver

— negative G maneuver

— nonsteady maneuver

— orbit insertion maneuver

— orbital maneuver

— orbit-changing maneuver

— orbit-transfer maneuver

— orbit-trimming maneuver

— orientation maneuver

— out-of-control maneuver

— overshoot maneuver

— over-the-shoulder bombing maneuver

— pickup maneuver

— pitch maneuver

— plane-change maneuver

— pop-up maneuver

— post-docking maneuver

— postgrade maneuver

— powered maneuver

— prearranged maneuver

— precision maneuver

— preentry maneuver

— preretro maneuver

— pre-takeoff maneuver

— programed maneuver

— pull-out maneuver

— pull-up maneuver

— push-down maneuver

— push-over maneuver

— radar evasive maneuver

— reconversion maneuver

— recovery maneuver

— rectangular pattern maneuver

— rendezvous maneuver

— retrofire maneuver

— retrograde maneuver

— roll maneuver

— rolling maneuver

— rolling pull-out maneuver

— rotation maneuver

— scissors maneuver

— semistalled maneuver

— short powered-flight maneuver

— short-lived maneuver

— sidestep maneuver

— slowdown maneuver

— snap maneuver

— solo maneuvers

— space maneuver

— spacecraft maneuver

— split "S" maneuver

— stall/spin maneuver

— stalled maneuver

— standard turn maneuver

— steep maneuver

— subsonic maneuver

— supersonic maneuver

— sustained negative-g maneuver

— synergetic maneuver

— takeoff maneuver

— target maneuver

— terminal maneuver

— terrain-avoidance maneuver

— terrain-following maneuver

— thrusting maneuver

— timed maneuver

— time-optimal rendezvous maneuver

— toss bombing maneuver

— transition maneuver

— trim maneuver

— uncontrollable maneuver

— uncontrolled maneuver

— unpowered maneuver

— unusual attitude maneuver

— up-and-down maneuver

— vertical maneuver

— vertical turn maneuver

— weapons delivery maneuver

— weapons launching maneuver

— yawing maneuver

— yaw-roll maneuver

— zoom autorotation maneuver

— zoom maneuver

Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > maneuver
103 stability

устойчивость; остойчивость ( гидросамолёта) ; стабильность ( пиротехнического состава)

overall stability of the vehicle — устойчивость ЛА в сборе

reentry vehicle dynamic stability — динамическая устойчивость КЛА при входе в атмосферу

stability of the wake — устойчивость следа

stability with yaw dampers off — устойчивость с отключенными демпферами рыскания

stability with yaw dampers on — устойчивость с включенными демпферами рыскания

— aerodynamic-produced stability

— aeroelastic stability

— aircraft stability

— airflow stability

— airspeed stability

— angle-of-attack stability

— arrow stability

— artificial stability

— attitude stability

— automatic stability

— autopilot stability

— basic stability

— black-box stability

— boost stability

— boost-phase attitude stability

— boundary layer stability

— chamber stability

— chemical stability

— closed-loop stability

— column stability

— combustion stability

— control-fixed stability

— control-free stability

— course stability

— dead-beat stability

— diffuser stability

— directional stability

— dynamic stability

— elastic stability

— elevated temperature stability

— engine stability

— fixed control stability

— fixed-stick stability

— fixed-stick-and-pedal stability

— fixed-wing stability

— flame stability

— flame-front stability

— flow stability

— foam concentrate stability

— fore-and-aft stability

— forward flight stability

— free-control stability

— free-stick stability

— free-stick-and-pedal stability

— fuel control stability

— fundamental airplane stability

— grain burning stability

— grain stability

— ground stability

— gyroscope stability

— gyroscopic stability

— hands-off stability

— heading stability

— heat stability

— high-speed stability

— high-temperature stability

— hovering stability

— hypersonic stability

— inelastic stability

— inflight stability

— inherent stability

— initial stability

— injection-rate stability

— intrinsic stability

— irradiation stability

— jet fuel stability

— lateral stability

— lateral-directional stability

— launch stability

— longitudinal stability

— long-period stability

— long-time stability

— low-speed stability

— low-temperature stability

— maintain stability

— maneuvering stability

— marginal stability

— missile stability

— natural aerodynamic stability

— negative stability

— neutral stability

— numerical stability

— optical stability

— oscillatory stability

— oxidation stability

— oxidative stability

— parametric stability

— pedal-fixed stability

— pedal-free stability

— pendulum stability

— plastic stability

— pltching stability

— positive stability

— poststall stability

— prestall stability

— propellant stability

— radiation stability

— rocket stability

— rolling stability

— rotor stability

— rudder-free stability

— shell stability

— short-period stability

— space shuttle stability

— speed stability

— stability and control

— stability in bending

— static stability

— stick-fixed stability

— stick-free stability

— storage stability

— structural stability

— subsonic stability

— supersonic stability

— synthetic stability

— temperature stability

— thermal stability

— thermo-oxi dative stability

— torsi onal-flexural stability

— touchdown stability

— transitional stability

— transonic stability

— unsymmetrical power stability

— vacuum thermal stability

— water stability

— weathercock stability

— yawing stability

— zero stability

Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > stability
104 structure

конструкция; структура; сооружение; строение; устройство; расположение

fare-field structure of wake turbulence — структура турбулентности в дальнем следе

glass filament-wound motor structure — конструкция двигателя, изготовленная намоткой стекловолокна

metal-to-metal adhesive bonded structure — склеенная металлическая конструкция

structure of inverted «Y» form — конструкция в форме перевёрнутого «Y»

titanium-faced fiber-glass honeycomb core sandwich structure — слоистая конструкция с заполнителем из стеклопластика и титановой обшивкой

wave structure of exhaust — структура волн сжатия в струе вытекающих газов

— ablating shell structure

— aerospace structures

— aircraft structure

— airframe structure

— all-metal structure

— all-wood structure

— aluminum-alloy structure

— aluminum-honeycomb sandwich structure

— atmospheric structure

— basic structure

— boron composite structure

— boundary layer structure

— boundary structure

— braced structure

— brazed structure

— buckling-critical shell structure

— cantilever structure

— circular structure

— cockpit structure

— composite material structure

— continuum shock structure

— contoured structure

— cryogenic structure

— doubie-shell structure

— doubie-skin structure

— doubie-skinned structure

— double-walled structure

— efficient strength-weight structure

— elastic structure

— energy-absorbing structure

— engine-mounting structure

— environmental structure

— expandable structure

— expendable structure

— fail-safe structure

— filament wound structure

— flame structure

— flap structure

— flight-vehicle structure

— foamed-sandwich structure

— foaming structure

— foamy structure

— forward fuselage structure

— fuel-tight structure

— fuselage structure

— ground wind structure

— hard structure

— heat-resistant structure

— high strength/lightweight structure

— high temperature structure

— honeycomb sandwich structure

— hypersonic structure

— indeterminate structure

— interstage structure

— inultispar structure

— ionospheric structure

— isotensoid structure

— jet structure

— laminated structure

— launcher structure

— launcher-and-missile storage structure

— layered structure

— load-bearing structure

— load-carrying structure

— main structure

— mainplane structure

— maximum strength-to-weight structure

— membrane structure

— metal structure

— missile structure

— monocoque structure

— monospar structure

— motor-bay structure

— multigrain structure

— multilayer structure

— multispan structure

— nacelle structure

— nozzle structure

— one-piece structure

— open structure

— ordered structure

— orderly structure

— planar structure

— primary structure

— radiation-cooled structure

— redundant structure

— reentry structure

— rocket structure

— rugged structure

— sandwich structure

— selectively-reinforcing structure

— semimonocoque structure

— service structure

— servicing structure

— sheet-stringer structure

— shell structure

— shock wave structure

— single-spar structure

— spar-and-rib structure

— stand structure

— tail structure

— tailplane structure

— tension structure

— three-dimensional structure

— thrust structure

— thrust-chamber structure

— titanium structure

— torsion-box structure

— torsion-cell structure

— twin-keel structure

— two-spar structure

— unprotected structure

— viscoelastic structure

— vision-restrictive structures

— wake structure

— weak structure

— wind structure

— wing structure

Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > structure
105 Cayley, Sir George

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 27 December 1773 Scarborough, England

d. 15 December 1857 Brompton Hall, Yorkshire, England

[br]

English pioneer who laid down the basic principles of the aeroplane in 1799 and built a manned glider in 1853.

[br]

Cayley was born into a well-to-do Yorkshire family living at Brompton Hall. He was encouraged to study mathematics, navigation and mechanics, particularly by his mother. In 1792 he succeeded to the baronetcy and took over the daunting task of revitalizing the run-down family estate.

The first aeronautical device made by Cayley was a copy of the toy helicopter invented by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu in 1784. Cayley's version, made in 1796, convinced him that a machine could "rise in the air by mechanical means", as he later wrote. He studied the aerodynamics of flight and broke away from the unsuccessful ornithopters of his predecessors. In 1799 he scratched two sketches on a silver disc: one side of the disc showed the aerodynamic force on a wing resolved into lift and drag, and on the other side he illustrated his idea for a fixed-wing aeroplane; this disc is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In 1804 he tested a small wing on the end of a whirling arm to measure its lifting power. This led to the world's first model glider, which consisted of a simple kite (the wing) mounted on a pole with an adjustable cruciform tail. A full-size glider followed in 1809 and this flew successfully unmanned. By 1809 Cayley had also investigated the lifting properties of cambered wings and produced a low-drag aerofoil section. His aim was to produce a powered aeroplane, but no suitable engines were available. Steam-engines were too heavy, but he experimented with a gunpowder motor and invented the hot-air engine in 1807. He published details of some of his aeronautical researches in 1809–10 and in 1816 he wrote a paper on airships. Then for a period of some twenty-five years he was so busy with other activities that he largely neglected his aeronautical researches. It was not until 1843, at the age of 70, that he really had time to pursue his quest for flight. The Mechanics' Magazine of 8 April 1843 published drawings of "Sir George Cayley's Aerial Carriage", which consisted of a helicopter design with four circular lifting rotors—which could be adjusted to become wings—and two pusher propellers. In 1849 he built a full-size triplane glider which lifted a boy off the ground for a brief hop. Then in 1852 he proposed a monoplane glider which could be launched from a balloon. Late in 1853 Cayley built his "new flyer", another monoplane glider, which carried his coachman as a reluctant passenger across a dale at Brompton, Cayley became involved in public affairs and was MP for Scarborough in 1832. He also took a leading part in local scientific activities and was co-founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831 and of the Regent Street Polytechnic Institution in 1838.

[br]

Bibliography

Cayley wrote a number of articles and papers, the most significant being "On aerial navigation", Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy (November 1809—March 1810) (published in three numbers); and two further papers with the same title in Philosophical Magazine (1816 and 1817) (both describe semi-rigid airships).

Further Reading

L.Pritchard, 1961, Sir George Cayley, London (the standard work on the life of Cayley).

C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1962, Sir George Cayley's Aeronautics 1796–1855, London (covers his aeronautical achievements in more detail).

—1974, "Sir George Cayley, father of aerial navigation (1773–1857)", Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society) (April) (an updating paper).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Cayley, Sir George
106 Rankine, William John Macquorn

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

[br]

b. 5 July 1820 Edinburgh, Scotland

d. 1872

[br]

Scottish engineer and educator

[br]

Rankine was educated at Ayr Academy and Glasgow High School, although he appears to have learned much of his basic mathematics and physics through private study. He attended Edinburgh University and then assisted his father, who was acting as Superintendent of the Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway. This introduction to engineering practice was followed in 1838 by his appointment as a pupil to Sir John MacNeill, and for the next four years he served under MacNeill on his Irish railway projects. While still in his early twenties, Rankine presented pioneering papers on metal fatigue and other subjects to the Institution of Civil Engineers, for which he won a prize, but he appears to have resigned from the Civils in 1857 after an argument because the Institution would not transfer his Associate Membership into full Membership. From 1844 to 1848 Rankine worked on various projects for the Caledonian Railway Company, but his interests were becoming increasingly theoretical and a series of distinguished papers for learned societies established his reputation as a leading scholar in the new science of thermodynamics. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853. At the same time, he remained intimately involved with practical questions of applied science, in shipbuilding, marine engineering and electric telegraphy, becoming associated with the influential coterie of fellow Scots such as the Thomson brothers, Napier, Elder, and Lewis Gordon. Gordon was then the head of a large and successful engineering practice, but he was also Regius Professor of Engineering at the University of Glasgow, and when he retired from the Chair to pursue his business interests, Rankine, who had become his Assistant, was appointed in his place.

From 1855 until his premature death in 1872, Rankine built up an impressive engineering department, providing a firm theoretical basis with a series of text books that he wrote himself and most of which remained in print for many decades. Despite his quarrel with the Institution of Civil Engineers, Rankine took a keen interest in the institutional development of the engineering profession, becoming the first President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, which he helped to establish in 1857. Rankine campaigned vigorously for the recognition of engineering studies as a full university degree at Glasgow, and he achieved this in 1872, the year of his death. Rankine was one of the handful of mid-nineteenth century engineers who virtually created engineering as an academic discipline.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1853. First President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland, 1857.

Bibliography

1858, Manual of Applied Mechanics.

1859, Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers.

1862, Manual of Civil Engineering.

1869, Manual of Machinery and Millwork.

Further Reading

1873, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 21.

J.Small, 1957, "The institution's first president", Proceedings of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland: 687–97.

H.B.Sutherland, 1972, Rankine. His Life and Times.

AB

Biographical history of technology > Rankine, William John Macquorn
107 Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich von

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities

[br]

b. 24 August 1772 Durlach, Baden, Germany

d. 21 May 1826 Munich, Germany

[br]

German engineer.

[br]

While he was attending the Military School at Mannheim, Reichenbach drew attention to himself due to the mathematical instruments that he had designed. On the recommendation of Count Rumford in Munich, the Bavarian government financed a two-year stay in Britain so that Reichenbach could become acquainted with modern mechanical engineering. He returned to Mannheim in 1793, and during the Napoleonic Wars he was involved in the manufacture of arms. In Munich, where he was in the service of the Bavarian state from 1796, he started producing precision instruments in his own time. His basic invention was the design of a dividing machine for circles, produced at the end of the eighteenth century. The astronomic and geodetic instruments he produced excelled all the others for their precision. His telescopes in particular, being perfect in use and of solid construction, soon brought him an international reputation. They were manufactured at the MathematicMechanical Institute, which he had jointly founded with Joseph Utzschneider and Joseph Liebherr in 1804 and which became a renowned training establishment. The glasses and lenses were produced by Joseph Fraunhofer who joined the company in 1807.

In the same year he was put in charge of the technical reorganization of the salt-works at Reichenhall. After he had finished the brine-transport line from Reichenhall to Traunstein in 1810, he started on the one from Berchtesgaden to Reichenhall which was an extremely difficult task because of the mountainous area that had to be crossed. As water was the only source of energy available he decided to use water-column engines for pumping the brine in the pipes of both lines. Such devices had been in use for pumping purposes in different mining areas since the middle of the eighteenth century. Reichenbach knew about the one constructed by Joseph Karl Hell in Slovakia, which in principle had just been a simple piston-pump driven by water which did not work satisfactorily. Instead he constructed a really effective double-action water-column engine; this was a short time after Richard Trevithick had constructed a similar machine in England. For the second line he improved the system and built a single-action pump. All the parts of it were made of metal, which made them easy to produce, and the pumps proved to be extremely reliable, working for over 100 years.

At the official opening of the line in 1817 the Bavarian king rewarded him generously. He remained in the state's service, becoming head of the department for roads and waterways in 1820, and he contributed to the development of Bavarian industry as well as the public infrastructure in many ways as a result of his mechanical skill and his innovative engineering mind.

[br]

Further Reading

Bauernfeind, "Georg von Reichenbach" Allgemeine deutsche Biographie 27:656–67 (a reliable nineteenth-century account).

W.Dyck, 1912, Georg v. Reichenbach, Munich.

K.Matschoss, 1941, Grosse Ingenieure, Munich and Berlin, 3rd edn. 121–32 (a concise description of his achievements in the development of optical instruments and engineering).

WK

Biographical history of technology > Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich von
108 Renard, Charles

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 23 November 1847 Damblain, Vosges, France

d. 13 April 1905 Chalais-Meudon, France

[br]

French pioneer of military aeronautics who, with A.C.Krebs, built an airship powered by an electric motor.

[br]

Charles Renard was a French army officer with an interest in aviation. In 1873 he constructed an unusual unmanned glider with ten wings and an automatic stabilizing device to control rolling. This operated by means of a pendulum device linked to moving control surfaces. The model was launched from a tower near Arras, but unfortunately it spiralled into the ground. The control surfaces could not cope with the basic instability of the design, but as an idea for automatic flight control it was ahead of its time.

Following a Commission report on the military use of balloons, carrier pigeons and an optical telegraph, an aeronautical establishment was set up in 1877 at Chalais-Meudon, near Paris, under the direction of Charles Renard, who was assisted by his brother Paul. The following year Renard and a colleague, Arthur Krebs, began to plan an airship. They received financial help from Léon Gambetta, a prominent politician who had escaped from Paris by balloon in 1870 during the siege by the Prussians. Renard and Krebs studied earlier airship designs: they used the outside shape of Paul Haenlein's gas-engined airship of 1872 and included Meusnier's internal air-filled ballonnets. The gas-engine had not been a success so they decided on an electric motor. Renard developed lightweight pile batteries while Krebs designed a motor, although this was later replaced by a more powerful Gramme motor of 6.5 kW (9 hp). La France was constructed at Chalais-Meudon and, after a two-month wait for calm conditions, the airship finally ascended on 9 August 1884. The motor was switched on and the flight began. Renard and Krebs found their airship handled well and after twenty-three minutes they landed back at their base. La, France made several successful flights, but its speed of only 24 km/h (15 mph) meant that flights could be made only in calm weather. Parts of La, France, including the electric motor, are preserved in the Musée de l'Air in Paris.

Renard remained in charge of the establishment at Chalais-Meudon until his death. Among other things, he developed the "Train Renard", a train of articulated road vehicles for military and civil use, of which a number were built between 1903 and 1911. Towards the end of his life Renard became interested in helicopters, and in 1904 he built a large twin-rotor model which, however, failed to take off.

[br]

Bibliography

1886, Le Ballon dirigeable La France, Paris (a description of the airship).

Further Reading

Descriptions of Renard and Kreb's airship are given in most books on the history of lighter-than-air flight, e.g.

L.T.C.Rolt, 1966, The Aeronauts, London; pub. in paperback 1985.

C.Bailleux, c. 1988, Association pour l'Histoire de l'Electricité en France, (a detailed account of the conception and operations of La France).

1977, Centenaire de la recherche aéronautique à Chalais-Meudon, Paris (an official memoir on the work of Chalais-Meudon with a chapter on Renard).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Renard, Charles
109 Rogallo, Francis Melvin

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 1912 USA

[br]

American engineer who patented a flexible-winged hand-glider in 1948.

[br]

After the hang-gliders of pioneers such as Lilienthal, Pilcher and Chanute in the 1890s, this form of flying virtually disappeared for seventy years. It was reintroduced in the late 1960s based on Francis Rogallo's flexible wing, patented in the United States in 1948. Rogallo's wing was very basic: it consisted of a fabric delta wing with a solid boom along each leading edge and one along the centre line. Between these booms, the fabric was free to billow out into two partial cones. Variations of the Rogallo flexible wing were investigated in the 1960s by Ryans as a means of recovering space vehicles (e.g. Saturn booster), and by North American for the recovery of Gemini spacecraft. In 1963 a version with a 155 kW (210 hp) engine was tested by the US services as a potential lightweight transport vehicle. None of these made a great impact and the Rogallo wing became popular as a hang-glider c. 1970. The pilot was suspended in a harness below a lightweight Rogallo wing. A framework attached to the wing structure allowed the pilot to move his or her body in any direction relative to the wing. Thus, if they wished to dive, they would move their weight forward, which made the glider nose-heavy. This was a great improvement over the earlier hang-gliders, in which the upper part of the pilot's body was held in a fixed position and control was achieved by swinging the legs. Rogallo-wing hang-gliders became very popular as they were relatively cheap and easy to transport. Once the sport developed, powered "microlights" made their appearance and a new branch of popular flying was established.

[br]

Further Reading

Ann Welsh, 1977, "Hang glider development", Aerospace (Royal Aeronautical Society) (August/September).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Rogallo, Francis Melvin
110 Short, Hugh Oswald

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 16 January 1883 Derbyshire, England

d. 4 December 1969 Haslemere, England

[br]

English co-founder, with his brothers Horace Short (1872–1917) and Eustace (1875–1932), of the first company to design and build aeroplanes in Britain.

[br]

Oswald Short trained as an engineer; he was largely self-taught but was assisted by his brothers Eustace and Horace. In 1898 Eustace and the young Oswald set up a balloon business, building their first balloon in 1901. Two years later they sold observation balloons to the Government of India, and further orders followed. Meanwhile, in 1906 Horace designed a high-altitude balloon with a spherical pressurized gondola, an idea later used by Auguste Piccard, in 1931. Horace, a strange genius with a dominating character, joined his younger brothers in 1908 to found Short Brothers. Their first design, based on the Wright Flyer, was a limited success, but No. 2 won a Daily Mail prize of £1,000. In the same year, 1909, the Wright brothers chose Shorts to build six of their new Model A biplanes. Still using the basic Wright layout, Horace designed the world's first twin-engined aeroplane to fly successfully: it had one engine forward of the pilot, and one aft. During the years before the First World War the Shorts turned to tractor biplanes and specialized in floatplanes for the Admiralty.

Oswald established a seaplane factory at Rochester, Kent, during 1913–14, and an airship works at Cardington, Bedfordshire, in 1916. Short Brothers went on to build the rigid airship R 32, which was completed in 1919. Unfortunately, Horace died in 1917, which threw a greater responsibility onto Oswald, who became the main innovator. He introduced the use of aluminium alloys combined with a smooth "stressed-skin" construction (unlike Junkers, who used corrugated skins). His sleek biplane the Silver Streak flew in 1920, well ahead of its time, but official support was not forthcoming. Oswald Short struggled on, trying to introduce his all-metal construction, especially for flying boats. He eventually succeeded with the biplane Singapore, of 1926, which had an all-metal hull. The prototype was used by Sir Alan Cobham for his flight round Africa. Several successful all-metal flying boats followed, including the Empire flying boats (1936) and the ubiquitous Sunderland (1937). The Stirling bomber (1939) was derived from the Sunderland. The company was nationalized in 1942 and Oswald Short retired the following year.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. Freeman of the City of London. Oswald Short turned down an MBE in 1919 as he felt it did not reflect the achievements of the Short Brothers.

Bibliography

1966, "Aircraft with stressed skin metal construction", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (November) (an account of the problems with patents and officialdom).

Further Reading

C.H.Barnes, 1967, Shorts Aircraft since 1900, London; reprinted 1989 (a detailed account of the work of the Short brothers).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Short, Hugh Oswald
111 Voisin, Gabriel

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 5 February 1880 Belleville-sur-Saône, France

d. 25 December 1973 Ozenay, France

[br]

French manufacturer of aeroplanes in the early years of aviation.

[br]

Gabriel Voisin was one of a group of aviation pioneers working in France c. 1905. One of the leaders of this group was a rich lawyer-sportsman, Ernest Archdeacon. For a number of years they had been building gliders based on those of the Wright brothers. Archdeacon's glider of 1904 was flown by Voisin, who went on to assist in the design and manufacture of gliders for Archdeacon and Louis Blériot, including successful float-gliders. Gabriel Voisin was joined by his brother Charles in 1905 and they set up the first commercial aircraft factory. As the Voisins had limited funds, they had to seek customers who could afford to indulge in the fashionable hobby of flying. One was Santos- Dumont, who commissioned Voisin to build his "14 bis" aeroplane in 1906.

Early in 1907 the Voisins built their first powered aeroplane, but it was not a success.

Later that year they completed a biplane for a Paris sculptor, Léon Delagrange, and another for Henri Farman. The basic Voisin was a biplane with the engine behind the pilot and a "pusher" propeller. Pitching was controlled by biplane elevators forward of the pilot and rudders were fitted to the box kite tail, but there was no control of roll.

Improvements were gradually introduced by the Voisins and their customers, such as Farman. Incidentally, to flatter their clients the Voisins often named the aircraft after them, thus causing some confusion to historians. Many Voisins were built up until 1910, when the company's fortunes sank. Competition was growing, the factory was flooded, and Charles left. Gabriel started again, building robust biplanes of steel construction. Voisin bombers were widely used during the First World War, and a subsidiary factory was built in Russia.

In August 1917, Voisin sold his business when the French Air Ministry decided that Voisin aeroplanes were obsolete and that the factory should be turned over to the building of engines. After the war he started another business making prefabricated houses, and then turned to manufacturing motor cars. From 1919 to 1939 his company produced various models, mainly for the luxury end of the market but also including a few sports and racing cars. In the early 1950s he designed a small two-seater, which was built by the Biscuter company in Spain. The Voisin company finally closed in 1958.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1909. Académie des Sciences Gold Medal 1909.

Bibliography

1961, Mes dix milles cerfs-volants, France; repub. 1963 as Men, Women and 10,000 Kites, London (autobiography; an eminent reviewer said, "it contains so many demonstrable absurdities, untruths and misleading statements, that one does not know how much of the rest one can believe").

1962, Mes Mille et un voitures, France (covers his cars).

Further Reading

C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1965, The Invention of the Aeroplane 1799–1909, London (includes an account of Voisin's contribution to aviation and a list of his early aircraft).

Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War I, London; reprinted 1990 (provides details of Voisin's 1914–18 aircraft).

E.Chadeau, 1987, L'Industrie aéronautique en France 1900–1950, de Blériot à Dassault, Paris.

G.N.Georgano, 1968, Encyclopedia of Motor Cars 1885 to the Present, New York (includes brief descriptions of Voisin's cars).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Voisin, Gabriel
112 shaft

шахта, ствол шахты; вал; ось стержень, шпиндель; тяга, привод

•

- agitation shaft

- agitator shaft
- air shaft
- articulated shaft
- auger shaft
- auxiliary shaft
- balanced crankshaft
- ball-bearing crankshaft
- basic shaft
- blind shaft
- bevel pinion shaft
- built-up crankshaft
- cage shaft
- cager rocker shaft
- caisson-sunk shaft
- cam shaft
- cardan shaft
- castellated saft
- centre shaft
- chippy shaft
- circular shaft
- clutch shaft
- connection shaft
- counter-weighted crankshaft
- crank shaft
- cutter shaft
- cutting shaft
- deep shaft
- discharging air shaft
- distributing shaft
- double-jointed shaft
- downcast shaft
- drainage shaft
- drawing shaft
- drive shaft
- drive shaft
- driven shaft
- driving shaft
- dummy shaft
- drum shaft
- eccentric shaft
- elliptical shaft
- emergency shaft
- enclosed cardan shaft
- engaging shaft
- engine shaft
- escape shaft
- exhaust camshaft
- exploratory shaft
- exposed propeller shaft
- extraction shaft
- feed shaft
- flexible shaft
- fluted shaft
- four-bearing crankshaft
- gear shaft
- grinding shaft
- haulage shaft
- hoisting shaft
- idle shaft
- inclined shaft
- inlet camshaft
- jack shaft
- joint hoisting shaft
- joint ventilation shaft
- live power take-off shaft
- mine drive shaft
- main shaft
- main winding shaft
- main working shaft
- monkey shaft
- multispeed power take-off shaft
- multithrow crankshaft
- one-piece crankshaft
- output shaft
- overhead camshaft
- pinion shaft
- power shaft
- power take-off shaft
- production shaft
- prospecting shaft
- pump shaft
- rectangular shaft
- reverse power take-off shaft
- reverse shaft
- roller-bearing crankshaft
- shifting camshaft
- single-throw crankshaft
- skip shaft
- spline shaft
- splined shaft
- stand-by shaft
- tender shaft
- three-throw crankshaft
- timbered shaft
- torsion shaft
- transmission shaft
- two-bearing crankshaft
- two-throw crankshaft
- upcast shaft
- variable-drive power take-off shaft
- winding shaft
- worm shaft

English-Russian mining dictionary > shaft
113 design

design n
конструкция
aerodynamic design
аэродинамическая схема
aircraft design
конструкция воздушного судна
aircraft design load
расчетный предел нагрузки воздушного судна
approved design
утвержденный проект
basic design
основная конструкция
critical design parameter
критический расчетный параметр
design airspeed
расчетная воздушная скорость
design altitude
расчетная высота
design ceiling
расчетный потолок
design characteristic
расчетная характеристика
design conditions
расчетные условия
design data
расчетные данные
designed stress limit
предел допустимых расчетных перегрузок
design factor
расчетный коэффициент
design fault
конструктивный отказ
design flight weight
расчетная полетная масса
design flying range
расчетная дальность полета
design landing mass
расчетная посадочная масса
design landing weight
расчетная посадочная масса
design life
расчетный срок службы
design load
расчетная нагрузка
design noise level
расчетный уровень шума
design pressure
расчетное давление
design speed
расчетная скорость
design takeoff mass
расчетная взлетная масса
design takeoff weight
расчетная взлетная масса
design taxiing mass
расчетная масса при рулении
design thrust
расчетная тяга
design tolerance
расчетный допуск
design wing area
расчетная площадь крыла
exit design speed
расчетная скорость схода
(с ВПП) modular engine design
модульная конструкция двигателя

English-Russian aviation dictionary > design
114 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
115 design

1. n
1) конструкція, дизайн

2) проект

3) схема

4) проектування, розробка, конструювання
2. v
проектувати, розробляти

•

- aerodynamic design
- aircraft design - approved design - basic design - canard-wing aircraft design - conventional two-spar design - modular engine design - optimal design - tailless aircraft design - wide-body design

English-Ukrainian dictionary of aviation terms > design

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Basic Analysis and Security Engine — est une interface web permettant la gestion des alertes générées par l IDS Snort. Elle permet le classement des alertes en groupe, l affichage de diagrammes et la recherche des alertes selon différents critères. BASE est un programme sous licence … Wikipédia en Français
Engine Sentai Go-onger — Titre original 炎神戦隊ゴーオンジャー Translittération Enjin Sentai Gō Onjā Genre Sentai Pays d’origine Japon Chaîne d’origine … Wikipédia en Français
Engine Alley — formed in 1989 in the shape of Kilkenny boys, Canice Kenealy (Vocals), Brian Kenealy (Guitar) and Eamonn Byrne (Bass). Moving to Dublinthey recruited drummer Emmaline Duffy Fallon and the line up was completed in 1991 with the addition of Ken… … Wikipedia
Engine swap — Warning: in some jurisdictions with strict smog rules it may not be possible to register a late model vehicle with an engine swap, even if it can be proven that it produces less pollution than the original engine (owing to visual inspection… … Wikipedia
Engine displacement — One complete cycle of a four cylinder, four stroke engine. The volume displaced is marked in orange. Engine displacement is the volume swept by all the pistons inside the cylinders of an internal combustion engine in a single movement from top… … Wikipedia

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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basic+engine

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