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  • 81 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 82 Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

    (19061980)
       Marcello Caetano, as the last prime minister of the Estado Novo, was both the heir and successor of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. In a sense, Caetano was one of the founders and sustainers of this unusual regime and, at various crucial stages of its long life, Caetano's contribution was as important as Salazar's.
       Born in Lisbon in 1906 to a middle-class family, Caetano was a member of the student generation that rebelled against the unstable parliamentary First Republic and sought answers to Portugal's legion of troubles in conservative ideologies such as integralism, Catholic reformism, and the Italian Fascist model. One of the most brilliant students at the University of Lisbon's Law School, Caetano soon became directly involved in government service in various ministries, including Salazar's Ministry of Finance. When Caetano was not teaching full-time at the law school in Lisbon and influencing new generations of students who became critical of the regime he helped construct, Caetano was in important government posts and working on challenging assignments. In the 1930s, he participated in reforms in the Ministry of Finance, in the writing of the 1933 Constitution, in the formation of the new civil code, of which he was in part the author, and in the construction of corporativism, which sought to control labor-management relations and other aspects of social engineering. In a regime largely directed by academics from the law faculties of Coimbra University and the University of Lisbon, Caetano was the leading expert on constitutional law, administrative law, political science, and colonial law. A prolific writer as both a political scientist and historian, Caetano was the author of the standard political science, administrative law, and history of law textbooks, works that remained in print and in use among students long after his exile and death.
       After his apprenticeship service in a number of ministries, Caetano rose steadily in the system. At age 38, he was named minister for the colonies (1944 47), and unlike many predecessors, he "went to see for himself" and made important research visits to Portugal's African territories. In 1955-58, Caetano served in the number-three position in the regime in the Ministry of the Presidency of the Council (premier's office); he left office for full-time academic work in part because of his disagreements with Salazar and others on regime policy and failures to reform at the desired pace. In 1956 and 1957, Caetano briefly served as interim minister of communications and of foreign affairs.
       Caetano's opportunity to take Salazar's place and to challenge even more conservative forces in the system came in the 1960s. Portugal's most prominent law professor had a public falling out with the regime in March 1962, when he resigned as rector of Lisbon University following a clash between rebellious students and the PIDE, the political police. When students opposing the regime organized strikes on the University of Lisbon campus, Caetano resigned his rectorship after the police invaded the campus and beat and arrested some students, without asking permission to enter university premises from university authorities.
       When Salazar became incapacitated in September 1968, President Américo Tomás named Caetano prime minister. His tasks were formidable: in the midst of remarkable economic growth in Portugal, continued heavy immigration of Portuguese to France and other countries, and the costly colonial wars in three African colonies, namely Angola, Guinea- Bissau, and Mozambique, the regime struggled to engineer essential social and political reforms, win the wars in Africa, and move toward meaningful political reforms. Caetano supported moderately important reforms in his first two years in office (1968-70), as well as the drafting of constitutional revisions in 1971 that allowed a slight liberalization of the Dictatorship, gave the opposition more room for activity, and decentrali zed authority in the overseas provinces (colonies). Always aware of the complexity of Portugal's colonial problems and of the ongoing wars, Caetano made several visits to Africa as premier, and he sought to implement reforms in social and economic affairs while maintaining the expensive, divisive military effort, Portugal's largest armed forces mobilization in her history.
       Opposed by intransigent right-wing forces in various sectors in both Portugal and Africa, Caetano's modest "opening" of 1968-70 soon narrowed. Conservative forces in the military, police, civil service, and private sectors opposed key political reforms, including greater democratization, while pursuing the military solution to the African crisis and personal wealth. A significant perspective on Caetano's failed program of reforms, which could not prevent the advent of a creeping revolution in society, is a key development in the 1961-74 era of colonial wars: despite Lisbon's efforts, the greater part of Portuguese emigration and capital investment during this period were directed not to the African colonies but to Europe, North America, and Brazil.
       Prime Minister Caetano, discouraged by events and by opposition to his reforms from the so-called "Rheumatic Brigade" of superannuated regime loyalists, attempted to resign his office, but President Américo Tomás convinced him to remain. The publication and public reception of African hero General Antônio Spinola's best-selling book Portugal e Futuro (Portugal and the Future) in February 1974 convinced the surprised Caetano that a coup and revolution were imminent. When the virtually bloodless, smoothly operating military coup was successful in what became known as the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Caetano surrendered to the Armed Forces Movement in Lisbon and was flown to Madeira Island and later to exile in Brazil, where he remained for the rest of his life. In his Brazilian exile, Caetano was active writing important memoirs and histories of the Estado Novo from his vantage point, teaching law at a private university in Rio de Janeiro, and carrying on a lively correspondence with persons in Portugal. He died at age 74, in 1980, in Brazil.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

  • 83 Carvalho, Otelo Saraiva de

    (1934-)
       Army major who planned and managed the military operational aspects of the military coup that overthrew the Estado Novo. A career army officer who entered his profession in the 1950s, he held important positions in several of the colonial wars in Portugal's African territories during 1961-74. Saraiva de Carvalho was born in Mozambique in 1934, and made it his life's ambition to become a stage actor. In his career, he was influenced by service with Portugal's most senior army officer, General Antônio de Spínola, who served the Estado Novo both as commissioner and commanding general of armed forces in the colony of Guinea- Bissau. Contact with African nationalist elements, as well as familiarity with increasi ngly available Marxist-Leninist literature both in Africa and in Portugal, transformed Saraiva de Carvalho into a maverick and revolutionary who sought to overthrow the Portuguese dictatorship at home by means of military intervention in politics through the Revolution of 25 April 1974.
       Known as "Otelo" (Othello) in the media and to much of the Portuguese public, Saraiva de Carvalho played a significant role in the period of 25 April 1974-25 November 1975, when the country experienced a leftist revolution and a trend toward a dictatorship of the Left. Eventually the head of COPCON, the Armed Forces Movement's special unit for enforcing "law and order" and for ensuring that the government was not overthrown by military insur-rectionism, Saraiva de Carvalho became a political personality in his own right. This somberly handsome figure became the darling of the radical Left, including anarchist factions.
       With the swing of the political pendulum away from the radical Left after the abortive leftist coup of 25 November 1975, Carvalho's military career was ended and his role in politics shifted. He was dismissed from the COPCON command, arrested, and held in prison for a period. After his release, he entered the political wilderness, unhappy that the unorthodox Marxist-Leninist revolution he envisioned for Portugal, was not happening. Still carrying the torch for the notion of a "Socialist paradise" in which the state would play only a small role, the hero of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 reentered politics and ran for president of the republic on two occasions. In 1976, he received a respectable 16 percent of the vote, but in the 1981 elections his vote was negligible. Accused of involvement in several terrorist factions' conspiracies and violence, Carvalho was arrested and imprisoned. After a long and sensational trial, "Otelo" was released and acquitted. Of all the memoirs of the 1974 Revolution, Alvorada em Abril (Reveille in April), his contribution, was the most charming and revealing.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Carvalho, Otelo Saraiva de

  • 84 Freitas do Amaral, Diogo

    (1941-)
       Legal scholar and teacher, jurist, civil servant, and politician. Born in Povoa de Varzim, Freitas do Amaral's father became a member of parliament in the Estado Novo's National Assembly. A superb student, the young Freitas do Amaral studied law at the Law Faculty, University of Lisbon, and became the top law student and protégé of Professor Marcello Caetano, who in 1968 was selected to replace an ailing Antônio de Oliveira Salazar as prime minister. Freitas do Amaral received his doctorate in law in the late 1960s and remained close to his former law professor, who was now prime minister. In his scholarship on the history of Portuguese law, as well as in his political and social ideology as a conservative, Freitas do Amaral in many respects remained a student, protégé, and follower of Caetano through the period of Caetano's premiership (1968-74) and into the era of the Revolution of 25 April 1974. More than 20 years later, Freitas do Amaral published his memoirs, which focused on the 1968-74 political era, O Antigo Regime E A Revolução. Memórias Políticas ( 1941-75). This personal portrait of Caetano's tribulations as a sometimes reluctant, well-prepared but probably inappropriately selected national leader remains an invaluable primary source for historical reconstruction.
       During the early months after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Freitas do Amaral entered politics and became a founder of the right-wing Christian Democratic Party (CDS). He served as the party's leader to 1985 and again from 1988 to 1991, and was a member of parliament, the Assembly of the Republic, from 1975 to 1983 and from 1992 to 1993. When the Democratic Alliance, of which the CDS was a part, won elections in 1979-80, Freitas do Amaral served as deputy prime minister and minister of defense and, when Francisco de Sá Carneiro died in a mysterious air crash, Freitas do Amaral briefly served as interim prime minister. He was a candidate for the presidency in the 1986 presidential election, although he lost to Mário Soares. In 1995, he served as President of the United Nations General Assembly. As a European federalist who disagreed with the CDS Euroskeptic line followed by Paulo Portas, Freitas do Amaral broke with his party and resigned from it. Although he was usually regarded as a right-winger, Freitas do Amaral backed the Social Democratic Party in the 2002 Assembly of the Republic elections. Disillusioned with the government's policies and critical of its endorsement of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March 2003, Freitas do Amaral shifted his support to the Socialist Party in the 2005 election. The new prime minister José Sôcrates named Freitas do Amaral minister of foreign affairs in the XVII Constitutional Government, but the senior jurist and politician resigned after a year in office, for health reasons.
       After many years as a law professor at the New University of Lisbon, in 2007, Freitas do Amaral delivered a final public lecture and retired from academia. He is the author of a biography of King Afonso I, a play, and of various legal and juridical studies and is considered the most eminent living scholar in the fields of administrative and constitutional law.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Freitas do Amaral, Diogo

  • 85 Soares, Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes

    (1924-)
       Lawyer, staunch oppositionist to the Estado Novo, a founder of Portugal's Socialist Party (PS), key leader of post-1974 democratic Portugal, and twice-elected president of the republic (1986-91; 1991-96). Mário Soares was born on 7 December 1924, in Lisbon, the son of an educator and former cabinet officer of the ill-fated First Republic. An outstanding student, Soares received a degree in history and philosophy from the University of Lisbon (1951) and his law degree from the same institution (1957). A teacher and a lawyer, the young Soares soon became active in various organizations that opposed the Estado Novo, starting in his student days and continuing into his association with the PS. He worked with the organizations of several oppositionist candidates for the presidency of the republic in 1949 and 1958 and, as a lawyer, defended a number of political figures against government prosecution in court. Soares was the family attorney for the family of General Humberto Delgado, murdered on the Spanish frontier by the regime's political police in 1965. Soares was signatory and editor of the "Program for the Democratization of the Republic" in 1961, and, in 1968, he was deported by the regime to São Tomé, one of Portugal's African colonies.
       In 1969, following the brief liberalization under the new prime minister Marcello Caetano, Soares returned from exile in Africa and participated as a member of the opposition in general elections for the National Assembly. Although harassed by the PIDE, he was courageous in attacking the government and its colonial policies in Africa. After the rigged election results were known, and no oppositionist deputy won a seat despite the Caetano "opening," Soares left for exile in France. From 1969 to 1974, he resided in France, consulted with other political exiles, and taught at a university. In 1973, at a meeting in West Germany, Soares participated in the (re)founding of the (Portuguese) Socialist Party.
       The exciting, unexpected news of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 reached Soares in France, and soon he was aboard a train bound for Lisbon, where he was to play a major role in the difficult period of revolutionary politics (1974-75). During a most critical phase, the "hot summer" of 1975, when a civil war seemed in the offing, Soares's efforts to steer Portugal away from a communist dictatorship and sustained civil strife were courageous and effective. He found allies in the moderate military and large sectors of the population. After the abortive leftist coup of 25 November 1975, Soares played an equally vital role in assisting the stabilization of a pluralist democracy.
       Prime minister on several occasions during the era of postrevolu-tionary adjustment (1976-85), Soares continued his role as the respected leader of the PS. Following 11 hectic years of the Lusitanian political hurly-burly, Soares was eager for a change and some rest. Prepared to give up leadership of the factious PS and become a senior statesman in the new Portugal, Mário Soares ran for the presidency of the republic. After serving twice as elected president of the republic, he established the Mário Soares Foundation, Lisbon, and was elected to the European Parliament.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Soares, Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes

  • 86 Anderson, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour
    [br]
    b. 1726 Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, Scotland
    d. 13 January 1796
    [br]
    Scottish natural philosopher.
    [br]
    Born in Roseneath manse, son of the minister, he was educated after his father's death by an aunt, a Mrs Turner, to whom he later paid back the cost, and was later an officer in the corps that was raised to resist the rebellion of 1745. He studied at Glasgow, where in 1756 he became Professor of Oriental Languages and, in 1760, Professor of Natural Philosophy; he is notable for allowing artisans to attend his lectures in their working clothes. He planned the fortifications set up to defend Greenock in 1759, and was sympathetic with the French Revolution. He invented a cannon in which the recoil was counteracted by the condensation of air in the carriage. After unsuccessfully trying to interest the Government in this gun, he went to Paris in 1791 and offered it to the National Convention. While there he invented a means of smuggling French newspapers into Germany by the use of small balloons. He lost in a lawsuit with the other professors. In 1786 he published Institutes of Physics, which ran to five editions in ten years, and in 1800 he wrote on Roman antiquities. Upon his death he left all his library and apparatus to an educational institute, which was named after him but has now become the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1786, Institutes of Physics.
    Further Reading
    Glasgow Mechanics' Magazine.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Anderson, John

  • 87 Clymer, George E.

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 1754 Bucks County, Pennsylvania, USA
    d. 27 August 1834 London, England
    [br]
    American inventor of the Columbian printing press.
    [br]
    Clymer was born on his father's farm, of a family that emigrated from Switzerland in the early eighteenth century. He attended local schools, helping out on the farm in his spare time, and he showed a particular talent for maintaining farm machinery. At the age of 16 he learned the trade of carpenter and joiner, which he followed in the same district for over twenty-five years. During that time, he showed his talent for mechanical invention in many ways, including the invention of a plough specially adapted to the local soils. Around 1800, he moved to Philadelphia, where his interest was aroused by the erection of the first bridge over the Schuylkill River. He devised a pump to remove water from the cofferdams at a rate of 500 gallons per day, superior to any other pumps then in use. He obtained a US patent for this in 1801, and a British one soon after.
    Clymer then turned his attention to the improvement of the printing press. For three and a half centuries after its invention, the old wooden-framed press had remained virtually unchanged except in detail. The first real change came in 1800 with the introduction of the iron press by Earl Stanhope. Modified versions were developed by other inventors, notably George Clymer, who after more than ten years' effort achieved his Columbian press. With its new system of levers, it enabled perfect impressions to be obtained with far less effort by the pressman. The Columbian was also notable for its distinctive cast-iron ornamentation, including a Hermes on each pillar and alligators and other reptiles on the levers. Most spectacular, it was surmounted by an American spread eagle, usually covered in gilt, which also served as a counterweight to raise the platen. The earliest known Columbian, surviving only in an illustration, bears the inscription Columbian Press/No.25/invented by George Clymer/Anno Domini 1813/Made in Philadelphia 1816. Few American printers could afford the US$400 selling price, so in 1817 Clymer went to England, where it was taken up enthusiastically. He obtained a British patent for it the same year, and by the following March it was being manufactured by the engineering firm R.W.Cope, although Clymer was probably making it on his own account soon afterwards. The Columbian was widely used for many years and continued to be made even into the twentieth century. The King of the Netherlands awarded Clymer a gold medal for his invention and the Tsar of Russia gave him a present for installing the press in Russia. Doubtless for business reasons, Clymer spent most of his remaining years in England and Europe.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    —1969, contributed a thorough survey of the press in J. Printing Hist. Soc., no. 3.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Clymer, George E.

  • 88 Morris, William Richard, Viscount Nuffield

    [br]
    b. 10 October 1877 Worcester, England
    d. 22 August 1963 Nuffield Place, England
    [br]
    English industrialist, car manufacturer and philanthropist.
    [br]
    Morris was the son of Frederick Morris, then a draper. He was the eldest of a family of seven, all of whom, except for one sister, died in childhood. When he was 3 years old, his father moved to Cowley, near Oxford, where he attended the village school. After a short time with a local bicycle firm he set up on his own at the age of 16 with a capital of £4. He manufactured pedal cycles and by 1902 he had designed a motor cycle and was doing car-repair work. By 1912, at the Motor Show, he was able to announce his first car, the 8.9 hp, two-seater Morris Oxford with its characteristic "bull-nose". It could perform at up to 50 mph (80 km/h) and 50 mpg (5.65 1/100 km). It cost £165.
    Though untrained, Morris was a born engineer as well as a natural judge of character. This enabled him to build up a reliable team of assistants in his growing business, with an order for four hundred cars at the Motor Show in 1912. Much of his business was built up in the assembly of components manufactured by outside suppliers. In he moved out of his initial premises by New College in Longwall and bought land at Cowley, where he brought out his second model, the 11.9hp Morris Oxford. This was after the First World War, during which car production was reduced to allow the manufacture of tanks and munitions. He was awarded the OBE in 1917 for his war work. Morris Motors Ltd was incorporated in 1919, and within fifteen months sales of cars had reached over 3,000 a year. By 1923 he was producing 20,000 cars a year, and in 1926 50,000, equivalent to about one-third of Britain's output. With the slump, a substantial overdraft, and a large stock of unsold cars, Morris took the bold decision to cut the prices of cars in stock, which then sold out within three weeks. Other makers followed suit, but Morris was ahead of them.
    Morris was part-founder of the Pressed Steel Company, set up to produce car bodies at Cowley. A clever operation with the shareholding of the Morris Motors Company allowed Morris a substantial overall profit to provide expansion capital. By 1931 his "empire" comprised, in addition to Morris Motors, the MG Car Company, the Wolseley Company, the SU Carburettor Company and Morris Commercial Cars. In 1936, the value of Morris's financial interest in the business was put at some £16 million.
    William Morris was a frugal man and uncomplicated, having little use for all the money he made except to channel it to charitable purposes. It is said that in all he gave away some £30 million during his lifetime, much of it invested by the recipients to provide long-term benefits. He married Elizabeth Anstey in 1904 and lived for thirty years at Nuffield Place. He lived modestly, and even after retirement, when Honorary President of the British Motor Corporation, the result of a merger between Morris Motors and the Austin Motor Company, he drove himself to work in a modest 10 hp Wolseley. His generosity benefited many hospitals in London, Oxford, Birmingham and elsewhere. Oxford Colleges were another class of beneficiary from his largesse.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Viscount 1938; Baron (Lord Nuffield) 1934; Baronet 1929; OBE 1917; GBE 1941; CH 1958. FRS 1939. He was a doctor of seven universities and an honorary freeman of seven towns.
    Further Reading
    R.Jackson, 1964, The Nuffield Story.
    P.W.S.Andrews and E.Brunner, The Life of Lord Nuffield.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Morris, William Richard, Viscount Nuffield

  • 89 Muybridge, Eadweard

    [br]
    b. 9 April 1830 Kingston upon Thames, England
    d. 8 May 1904 Kingston upon Thames, England
    [br]
    English photographer and pioneer of sequence photography of movement.
    [br]
    He was born Edward Muggeridge, but later changed his name, taking the Saxon spelling of his first name and altering his surname, first to Muygridge and then to Muybridge. He emigrated to America in 1851, working in New York in bookbinding and selling as a commission agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company. Through contact with a New York daguerreotypist, Silas T.Selleck, he acquired an interest in photography that developed after his move to California in 1855. On a visit to England in 1860 he learned the wet-collodion process from a friend, Arthur Brown, and acquired the best photographic equipment available in London before returning to America. In 1867, under his trade pseudonym "Helios", he set out to record the scenery of the Far West with his mobile dark-room, christened "The Flying Studio".
    His reputation as a photographer of the first rank spread, and he was commissioned to record the survey visit of Major-General Henry W.Halleck to Alaska and also to record the territory through which the Central Pacific Railroad was being constructed. Perhaps because of this latter project, he was approached by the President of the Central Pacific, Leland Stanford, to attempt to photograph a horse trotting at speed. There was a long-standing controversy among racing men as to whether a trotting horse had all four hooves off the ground at any point; Stanford felt that it did, and hoped than an "instantaneous" photograph would settle the matter once and for all. In May 1872 Muybridge photographed the horse "Occident", but without any great success because the current wet-collodion process normally required many seconds, even in a good light, for a good result. In April 1873 he managed to produce some better negatives, in which a recognizable silhouette of the horse showed all four feet above the ground at the same time.
    Soon after, Muybridge left his young wife, Flora, in San Francisco to go with the army sent to put down the revolt of the Modoc Indians. While he was busy photographing the scenery and the combatants, his wife had an affair with a Major Harry Larkyns. On his return, finding his wife pregnant, he had several confrontations with Larkyns, which culminated in his shooting him dead. At his trial for murder, in February 1875, Muybridge was acquitted by the jury on the grounds of justifiable homicide; he left soon after on a long trip to South America.
    He again took up his photographic work when he returned to North America and Stanford asked him to take up the action-photography project once more. Using a new shutter design he had developed while on his trip south, and which would operate in as little as 1/1,000 of a second, he obtained more detailed pictures of "Occident" in July 1877. He then devised a new scheme, which Stanford sponsored at his farm at Palo Alto. A 50 ft (15 m) long shed was constructed, containing twelve cameras side by side, and a white background marked off with vertical, numbered lines was set up. Each camera was fitted with Muybridge's highspeed shutter, which was released by an electromagnetic catch. Thin threads stretched across the track were broken by the horse as it moved along, closing spring electrical contacts which released each shutter in turn. Thus, in about half a second, twelve photographs were obtained that showed all the phases of the movement.
    Although the pictures were still little more than silhouettes, they were very sharp, and sequences published in scientific and photographic journals throughout the world excited considerable attention. By replacing the threads with an electrical commutator device, which allowed the release of the shutters at precise intervals, Muybridge was able to take series of actions by other animals and humans. From 1880 he lectured in America and Europe, projecting his results in motion on the screen with his Zoopraxiscope projector. In August 1883 he received a grant of $40,000 from the University of Pennsylvania to carry on his work there. Using the vastly improved gelatine dry-plate process and new, improved multiple-camera apparatus, during 1884 and 1885 he produced over 100,000 photographs, of which 20,000 were reproduced in Animal Locomotion in 1887. The subjects were animals of all kinds, and human figures, mostly nude, in a wide range of activities. The quality of the photographs was extremely good, and the publication attracted considerable attention and praise.
    Muybridge returned to England in 1894; his last publications were Animals in Motion (1899) and The Human Figure in Motion (1901). His influence on the world of art was enormous, over-turning the conventional representations of action hitherto used by artists. His work in pioneering the use of sequence photography led to the science of chronophotography developed by Marey and others, and stimulated many inventors, notably Thomas Edison to work which led to the introduction of cinematography in the 1890s.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1887, Animal Locomotion, Philadelphia.
    1893, Descriptive Zoopraxography, Pennsylvania. 1899, Animals in Motion, London.
    Further Reading
    1973, Eadweard Muybridge: The Stanford Years, Stanford.
    G.Hendricks, 1975, Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York. R.Haas, 1976, Muybridge: Man in Motion, California.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Muybridge, Eadweard

  • 90 Noyce, Robert

    [br]
    b. 12 December 1927 Burlington, Iowa, USA
    [br]
    American engineer responsible for the development of integrated circuits and the microprocessor chip.
    [br]
    Noyce was the son of a Congregational minister whose family, after a number of moves, finally settled in Grinnell, some 50 miles (80 km) east of Des Moines, Iowa. Encouraged to follow his interest in science, in his teens he worked as a baby-sitter and mower of lawns to earn money for his hobby. One of his clients was Professor of Physics at Grinnell College, where Noyce enrolled to study mathematics and physics and eventually gained a top-grade BA. It was while there that he learned of the invention of the transistor by the team at Bell Laboratories, which included John Bardeen, a former fellow student of his professor. After taking a PhD in physical electronics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953, he joined the Philco Corporation in Philadelphia to work on the development of transistors. Then in January 1956 he accepted an invitation from William Shockley, another of the Bell transistor team, to join the newly formed Shockley Transistor Company, the first electronic firm to set up shop in Palo Alto, California, in what later became known as "Silicon Valley".
    From the start things at the company did not go well and eventually Noyce and Gordon Moore and six colleagues decided to offer themselves as a complete development team; with the aid of the Fairchild Camera and Instrument Company, the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation was born. It was there that in 1958, contemporaneously with Jack K. Wilby at Texas Instruments, Noyce had the idea for monolithic integration of transistor circuits. Eventually, after extended patent litigation involving study of laboratory notebooks and careful examination of the original claims, priority was assigned to Noyce. The invention was most timely. The Apollo Moon-landing programme announced by President Kennedy in May 1961 called for lightweight sophisticated navigation and control computer systems, which could only be met by the rapid development of the new technology, and Fairchild was well placed to deliver the micrologic chips required by NASA.
    In 1968 the founders sold Fairchild Semicon-ductors to the parent company. Noyce and Moore promptly found new backers and set up the Intel Corporation, primarily to make high-density memory chips. The first product was a 1,024-bit random access memory (1 K RAM) and by 1973 sales had reached $60 million. However, Noyce and Moore had already realized that it was possible to make a complete microcomputer by putting all the logic needed to go with the memory chip(s) on a single integrated circuit (1C) chip in the form of a general purpose central processing unit (CPU). By 1971 they had produced the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which sold for US$200, and within a year the 8008 followed. The personal computer (PC) revolution had begun! Noyce eventually left Intel, but he remained active in microchip technology and subsequently founded Sematech Inc.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Franklin Institute Stuart Ballantine Medal 1966. National Academy of Engineering 1969. National Academy of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1978; Cledo Brunetti Award (jointly with Kilby) 1978. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1979. National Medal of Science 1979. National Medal of Engineering 1987.
    Bibliography
    1955, "Base-widening punch-through", Proceedings of the American Physical Society.
    30 July 1959, US patent no. 2,981,877.
    Further Reading
    T.R.Reid, 1985, Microchip: The Story of a Revolution and the Men Who Made It, London: Pan Books.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Noyce, Robert

  • 91 Stevenson, Robert

    [br]
    b. 8 June 1772 Glasgow, Scotland
    d. 12 July 1850 Edinburgh, Scotland
    [br]
    Scottish lighthouse designer and builder.
    [br]
    After his father's death when he was only 2 years old, Robert Stevenson was educated at a school for children from families in reduced circumstances. However, c. 1788 his mother married again, to Thomas Smith, Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board. Stevenson then served an apprenticeship under his new stepfather. The Board, which is still an active force in the 1990s, was founded in 1786 to oversee the lights and buoyage in some of the wildest waters in Western Europe, the seas around the coasts of Scotland and the Isle of Man.
    After studies at Andersen's College (now the University of Strathclyde) and later at Edinburgh University, Stevenson assumed responsibility in the field for much of the construction work sanctioned by the Board. After some years he succeeded Smith as Engineer to the Board and thereby the long connection between the Northern Lights and the Stevenson family commenced.
    Stevenson became Engineer to the Board when he was about 30 years old, remaining in that office for the best part of half a century. During these years he improved catoptric lighting, adopted the central lamp refracting system and invented the intermittent flashing light. While these developments were sufficient to form a just memorial to the man, he was involved in greater endeavours in the construction of around twenty lighthouses, most of which had ingenious forms of construction. The finest piece was the Bell Rock Lighthouse, built on a reef off the Scottish East Coast. This enterprise took five years to complete and can be regarded as the most important construction of his life.
    His interests fitted in with those of the other great men living in and around Edinburgh at the time, and included oceanography, astronomy, architecture and antiquarian studies. He designed several notable bridges, proposed a design for the rails for railways and also made a notable study of marine timber borers. He contributed to Encyclopaedia Britannica and to many journals.
    His grandson, born in the year of his death, was the famous author Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–94).
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS Edinburgh.
    Further Reading
    Sir Walter Scott, 1982, Northern Lights, Hawick.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Stevenson, Robert

  • 92 bear

    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) þola, afbera
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) þola
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) fæða, bera, ala
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) bera
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) vera með
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) sveigja, liggja, stefna
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) björn

    English-Icelandic dictionary > bear

  • 93 bear

    medve to bear: tart, hoz, szül, elszenved, hordoz, cipel, hord
    * * *
    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) elvisel
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) tart
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) szül
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) hord(oz)
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) visel
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) elágazik
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) medve

    English-Hungarian dictionary > bear

  • 94 bear

    n. ayı; spekülatör, borsada büyük oynayarak fiyatları etkileyen kimse; kaba adam
    ————————
    v. taşımak; katlanmak, çekmek, sineye çekmek, üstlenmek, gütmek (kin), hazmetmek, dişini sıkmak; götürmek, getirmek, vermek, dönmek; değmek, sapmak, yönelmek; spekülasyon yapmak, borsa fiyatlarını düşürmek; duymak (sevgi); doğurmak
    * * *
    1. taşı (v.) 2. ayı (n.)
    * * *
    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) çekmek, tahammül etmek, katlanmak
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) çekmek, taşımak
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) doğurmak, doğmak
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) taşımak
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) taşımak, doğmak, içermek
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) sapmak
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) ayı

    English-Turkish dictionary > bear

  • 95 bear

    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) prenesti
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) vzdržati
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) roditi (se)
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) nositi
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) nositi
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) zaviti (proti)
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) medved
    * * *
    I [bwə]
    noun
    zoology medved; figuratively neotesanec, neroda; borzni špekulant na padec vrednot; nautical slang metla
    a bear leader — inštruktor in spremljevalec mladeniča, spremljevalec blaziranega tujca
    sell not the bear's skin before you have caught the bear — ne delaj računa brez krčmarja, ne zidaj gradov v oblakih
    had it been a bear it would have bitten you — zmotil si se; ni bilo tako strašno kot je kazalo
    II [bwə]
    transitive verb & intransitive verb
    commerce špekulirati na borzi na padec cen; znižati vrednost papirjev na borzi, zbijati cene na tržišču
    III [bwə]
    1.
    transitive verb
    nositi, nesti; prenesti, pretrpeti, prenašati; podpreti, podpirati; dopustiti, dopuščati; roditi; pridelati; občutiti;
    2.
    intransitive verb
    zdržati; trpeti; peljati (pot); usmeriti se; biti ploden, (ob)roditi; uspeti
    to bear the blame — biti kriv, vzeti krivdo nase
    to bring to bear — vplivati; uveljaviti, urediti
    to bear evidence ( —ali witness) — pričati, dokaz(ov)ati
    to bear no grudge against s.o. — ne zameriti komu
    to bear in hand — imeti v oblasti; pomagati
    to bear in mind — misliti na kaj, upoštevati
    to bear o.s. well — dobro se držati
    to bear a part — biti deležen; imeti vlogo

    English-Slovenian dictionary > bear

  • 96 bear

    • tuottaa
    • esiintyä
    • sietää
    • potea
    stock exchange
    • pörssikeinottelija
    • kantaa
    • karhu
    • keinottelija
    • kestää
    • kokea
    • kannattaa
    • mesikämmen
    • pidellä
    • taakka
    • kuljettaa
    • kärsiä
    • kontio
    * * *
    I beə past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) kestää
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) kantaa
    3) ((past participle in passive born bo:n) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) synnyttää, syntyä
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) kantaa
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) olla, kantaa
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) kääntyä
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II beə noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) karhu

    English-Finnish dictionary > bear

  • 97 ♦ manner

    ♦ manner /ˈmænə(r)/
    n.
    1 maniera; modo; tono: She prepared the meal in the Chinese manner, ha preparato il pasto alla maniera cinese; He said it in an offensive manner, lo disse in tono offensivo; to do st. in a haphazard manner, fare qc. in modo approssimativo; (gramm.) adverb of manner, avverbio di modo
    2 modo di fare; contegno; atteggiamento; comportamento; condotta: I like his modest manner, mi piace il suo contegno modesto; a cold manner, un atteggiamento freddo; an odd manner, un comportamento strano
    3 (pl.) maniere; educazione; (spec.) buone maniere, buona educazione: good manners, buone maniere; buona educazione; bad manners, cattive maniere; maleducazione; coarse manners, modi grossolani; maniere rudi
    4 (pl.) consuetudini; usanze; costume: the manners of the time, le usanze del tempo; a comedy of manners, una commedia di costume
    5 (form.) specie; sorta; genere: What manner of woman is she?, che sorta di donna è?; all manner of things, ogni sorta di cose; oggetti d'ogni specie
    6 ( arte, letter.) maniera; stile: a picture in the manner of Rubens, un quadro alla maniera di Rubens
    ● after the Italian manner, all'italiana □ by no manner of means, per nessuna ragione; in nessun modo □ in the grand manner, in grande stile, in pompa magna □ in a manner, in un certo modo; fino a un certo punto □ in a manner of speaking, per così dire; per modo di dire □ in like manner, in modo simile; parimenti □ no manner of right, proprio nessun (fam.: nessunissimo) diritto □ to the manner born, nato per ( un certo compito, lavoro): a diplomat to the manner born, un diplomatico nato □ Where are your manners?, che maniere!; che modi sono questi?; chi ti ha insegnato l'educazione?

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ manner

  • 98 bear

    I [bɛə(r)] n
    niedźwiedź m; (STOCK EXCHANGE) gracz m na zniżkę
    II 1. [bɛə(r)] vt; pt bore, pp borne
    ( carry) nieść, nosić; ( support) podtrzymywać (podtrzymać perf); responsibility, cost ponosić (ponieść perf); (tolerate, endure) znosić (znieść perf); examination, scrutiny wytrzymywać (wytrzymać perf); traces, signs nosić; ( COMM) interest, dividend przynosić (przynieść perf); children, fruit rodzić (urodzić perf)
    2. vi ( AUT)

    to bear right/left — trzymać się prawej/lewej strony

    I can't bear him — nie mogę go znieść, nie znoszę go

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) znosić, tolerować
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) dźwigać
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) rodzić
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) nosić
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) nosić
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) skręcać, rozwidlać się
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) niedźwiedź

    English-Polish dictionary > bear

  • 99 bear

    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) izciest; paciest; panest
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) izturēt
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) piedzimt
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) nest
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) būt; atrasties
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) []griezties
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) lācis
    * * *
    lācis; lempis; spekulants; slota; pastatne, buks; nest; dot; izturēt; panest, paciest; dzemdēt

    English-Latvian dictionary > bear

  • 100 bear

    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) pakelti, išlaikyti
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?) išlaikyti
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) (pa)gimdyti
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) nešti
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) turėti
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) (pa)sukti, suktis, šakotis, atsišakoti
    •
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) meška

    English-Lithuanian dictionary > bear

Страницы

См. также в других словарях:

  • after–born — adj: born after a certain event (as a father s death or the execution of a will) Merriam Webster’s Dictionary of Law. Merriam Webster. 1996 …   Law dictionary

  • after-born child — A child born after a will has been executed by either parent or after the time in which a class gift made according to a trust arrangement expires. Dictionary from West s Encyclopedia of American Law. 2005. after born child …   Law dictionary

  • after-born heir — >> heir. Webster s New World Law Dictionary. Susan Ellis Wild. 2000 …   Law dictionary

  • after-born — Born afterward; born posthumously …   Ballentine's law dictionary

  • after-born — | ̷ ̷ ̷ ̷| ̷ ̷ adjective Etymology: after (I) + born 1. a. : born after the father s death : posthumous b. : born after the making and publishing of the father s last will 2 …   Useful english dictionary

  • after-born child — A child born after the death of the father. A child born to a testator after the making of the will. 57 Am J1st Wills § 1367. A child born to the grantor fit a deed after the execution and delivery of the instrument. 23 Am J2d Deeds § 214. See… …   Ballentine's law dictionary

  • after born child — Refers to child born after execution of will or to child born after time in which class gift closes. Generally, birth of child after father has executed his will does not revoke will. See en ventre sa mere heirs posthumous child …   Black's law dictionary

  • after-born child — Refers to child born after execution of will or to child born after time in which class gift closes. Generally, birth of child after father has executed his will does not revoke will. See en ventre sa mere heirs posthumous child …   Black's law dictionary

  • after born child — Refers to child born after execution of will or to child born after time in which class gift closes. Generally, birth of child after father has executed his will does not revoke will. See en ventre sa mere heirs posthumous child …   Black's law dictionary

  • after-born child — Refers to child born after execution of will or to child born after time in which class gift closes. Generally, birth of child after father has executed his will does not revoke will. See en ventre sa mere heirs posthumous child …   Black's law dictionary

  • after-born heirs — A person entitled to property born after the death of the ancestor intestate. See descent heirs …   Black's law dictionary

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