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administration+of+laws

  • 1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

    1) Military: NOAA
    2) Information technology: NOAA (Space, US Government)
    3) Oil: NOAA (Scientific support organization serving regulatory agencies charged with enforcing environmental laws affecting oceans and the atmosphere)
    4) Astronautics: NOAA (USA)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

  • 2 применение законов

    Русско-английский политический словарь > применение законов

  • 3 règlement

    règlement [ʀεgləmɑ̃]
    masculine noun
       a. ( = réglementation) rules
    • règlement intérieur [d'école] school rules ; [d'entreprise] policies and procedures
       b. [d'affaire, conflit, facture, dette] settlement
    * * *
    ʀɛgləmɑ̃
    nom masculin
    1) ( règles) regulations (pl), rules (pl)
    2) ( paiement) payment
    3) ( résolution) settlement

    règlement à l'amiable — amicable settlement; Droit out-of-court settlement

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    ʀɛɡləmɑ̃ nm
    1) (= solution) solution
    2) (= paiement) settlement

    règlement en espèces/par chèque — payment in cash/by cheque

    3) (= règles) regulations pl rules pl

    Le règlement est affiché à l'entrée. — The rules are up on the wall by the entrance.

    4) ADMINISTRATION by-laws pl
    * * *
    1 ( règles) regulations (pl), rules (pl); règlement administratif/militaire administrative/military regulations; c'est contraire au règlement it's against the regulations ou rules; le règlement c'est le règlement rules are rules;
    2 ( paiement) payment; mode de règlement method of payment; effectuer un règlement to make a payment; règlement en liquide cash settlement ou payment; faire un règlement par chèque to pay ou settle by cheque GB ou check US; en règlement de in settlement ou payment of; veuillez joindre votre règlement please enclose your remittance;
    3 ( résolution) settlement; l'affaire est en voie de règlement the matter is being settled; règlement à l'amiable amicable settlement; Jur out-of-court settlement.
    règlement de comptes settling of scores (entre between); règlement direct direct debit; règlement interne rules and regulations; règlement judiciaire compulsory liquidation; être en règlement judiciaire to be in the hands of the receiver; règlement de police by(e)-law, police regulation; règlement de procédure rules (pl) of procedure; règlement de sécurité safety regulations (pl).
    [rɛgləmɑ̃] nom masculin
    d'après le règlement, il est interdit de... it's against the regulations to...
    règlement administratif ≃ statutory policy
    règlement de police municipale ou municipal ≃ by-law
    2. [paiement] payment, settlement
    3. [résolution] settlement, settling
    règlement judiciaire DROIT compulsory liquidation, winding-up (UK)

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > règlement

  • 4 проведение законов в жизнь

    1) General subject: administration of laws
    2) Security: law enforcement

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > проведение законов в жизнь

  • 5 inspecteur du travail

    * * *
    nm
    * * *

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > inspecteur du travail

  • 6 lakien yhdenmukaistaminen

    administration and government
    • harmonization of laws

    Suomi-Englanti sanakirja > lakien yhdenmukaistaminen

  • 7 conseil

    conseil [kɔ̃sεj]
    1. masculine noun
       a. ( = recommandation) piece of advice
       b. ( = profession) consultancy
    • cabinet or société de conseil firm of consultants
       c. ( = personne) consultant (en in)
       d. ( = assemblée) board
    ► conseil d'administration [de société anonyme] board of directors ; [d'hôpital, école] board of governors
    ► conseil d'établissement (School) ≈ governing board (Brit), ≈ board of education (US)
    ► conseil général (French) departmental council ≈ county council (Brit), ≈ county commission (US)
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    In France, the « Conseil constitutionnel » is an official body that ensures that the constitution is respected in matters of legislation and during elections. The « Conseil d'État » examines bills before they are submitted to the « Conseil des ministres », a weekly meeting which some or all ministers attend. → ARRONDISSEMENT  COMMUNE  DÉPARTEMENT  RÉGION
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    Each « département » of France is run by a Conseil général, whose remit covers transport, housing, secondary schools, social welfare, and cultural and economic development. The council is made up of « conseillers généraux », each of whom represents a « canton » and is elected for a six-year term. Half of the council's members are elected every three years.
    * * *
    kɔ̃sɛj
    nom masculin
    1) ( avis) advice [U]
    2) ( assemblée) council
    3) ( conseiller) consultant
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    kɔ̃sɛj
    1. nm
    1) (= avis) piece of advice, advice no pl

    donner un conseil à qn — to give sb some advice, to give sb a piece of advice

    demander conseil à qn — to ask sb's advice, to ask sb for advice

    Est-ce que je peux te demander conseil? — Can I ask your advice?, Can I ask you for some advice?

    2) (= assemblée) council
    3) (= expert) consultant
    2. adj
    * * *
    conseil nm
    1 ( avis) advice ¢; un conseil a piece of advice; des conseils some advice; beaucoup de conseils a lot of advice; donner un conseil à qn to give sb advice; demander conseil à qn to ask (for) sb's advice; suivre/écouter les conseils de qn to follow/to listen to sb's advice; un petit conseil a little piece of advice; un bon conseil a piece of good advice; conseil d'ami piece of friendly advice; un conseil gratuit a piece of free advice; quelques conseils de prudence a few words of caution ou warning; sur les conseils de qn on sb's advice; donner à qn le conseil de faire to advise sb to do; il est de bon conseil he always gives good advice; conseils d'entretien cleaning ou care instructions; ⇒ nuit;
    2 ( assemblée) council; réunir le conseil to convene the council; tenir conseil to hold a meeting;
    3 ( conseiller) consultant; conseil en gestion management consultant.
    conseil d'administration Entr board of directors; conseil de classe Scol staff meeting (for all those teaching a given class); conseil de discipline Admin, Mil, Scol disciplinary committee; conseil de famille Jur Board of Guardians; ( non officiel) family meeting ou gathering; conseil général Pol council of a French department; conseil de guerre Mil council of war; conseil des ministres Pol gén council of ministers; ( au Royaume-Uni) Cabinet meeting; conseil municipal Pol town council; conseil régional Pol regional council; conseil de révision Mil medical board (assessing fitness for military service); conseil de surveillance Entr supervisory board; conseil d'université Univ senate; Conseil constitutionnel Jur Constitutional Council; Conseil économique et social Pol Economic and Social Council; Conseil d'État Pol Council of State (advising government on administrative matters); Conseil de l'Europe, CE Pol Council of Europe; Conseil de sécurité (de l'ONU) Pol (UN) Security Council; Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel, CSA Radio, TV body which monitors broadcasting; Conseil supérieur de la langue française body responsible for the regulation and advancement of the French language; Conseil supérieur de la magistrature, CSM Jur High Council for the Judiciary.
    ⓘ Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel The body which appoints the heads of the public broadcasting systems, licenses private contractors, monitors advertising and oversees all matters concerning impartiality, freedom of speech, quality and the promotion of French language and culture in the broadcast media.
    [kɔ̃sɛj] nom masculin
    1. [avis] piece of advice, counsel (soutenu)
    a. [d'ami] advice
    b. [trucs] tips, hints
    agir sur/suivre le conseil de quelqu'un to act on/to take somebody's advice
    demander conseil à quelqu'un to ask somebody's advice, to ask somebody for advice
    2. [conseiller] adviser, consultant
    (comme adjectif; avec ou sans trait d'union)
    3. [assemblée] board
    [réunion] meeting
    a. [d'une société] board of directors
    b. [d'une organisation internationale] governing body
    conseil de cabinet cabinet council, council of ministers
    le Conseil constitutionnelFrench government body ensuring that laws, elections and referenda are constitutional
    conseil général ≃ county council
    a. [réunion] war council ≃ War Cabinet
    b. [tribunal] court-martial
    le Conseil des ministres ≃ the Cabinet
    a. [en ville] ≃ town council, ≃ local (urban) council
    b. [à la campagne] ≃ parish council (UK), ≃ local (rural) council
    conseil de révision MILITAIRE recruiting board, draft board (US)
    conseil d'établissement ≃ board of governors (UK), ≃ board of education (US)
    Conseil d'Université ≃ university Senate (UK), ≃ Board of Trustees (US)
    ————————
    de bon conseil locution adjectivale
    un homme de bon conseil a man of sound advice, a wise counsellor
    demande-lui, elle est de bon conseil ask her, she's good at giving advice
    The Conseil constitutionnel, which ensures that new laws do not contravene the constitution, has nine members appointed for a nine-year period; it also includes the surviving former Presidents of France. The President of the Republic and any member of parliament can refer laws to the Conseil Constitutionnel for scrutiny.
    The French Council of State acts both as the highest court to which the legal affairs of the state can be referred, and as a consultative body to which bills and rulings are submitted by the government prior to examination by the Conseil des ministres. It has 200 members.
    The President himself presides over the Conseil des ministres, which traditionally meets every Wednesday morning; strictly speaking, when ministers assemble in the sole presence of the Prime Minister, this is known as le Conseil du cabinet.
    The body responsible for the administration of a département. Members are elected for a six-year term, with one councillor per canton, and are headed by the président du conseil général.
    The committee body for the administration of a région. Members are elected for a six-year term and are headed by the président du conseil régional. They decide on matters of planning, construction, regional development and education.
    This state body advises on the appointment of members of the magistrature, and on specific points of law concerning the judiciary. It is also consulted when the president wishes to exercise his official pardon. It has ten members: the Minister of Justice and nine others appointed by the President of the Republic.
    The town council is elected during the municipales (local elections). Elected members, or conseillers municipaux, oversee the administration of a commune in conjunction with the mayor.
    Demander conseil
    What would you do, if you were me? Qu'est-ce que tu ferais si tu étais moi ?
    What would you do in my place? Qu'est-ce que tu ferais à ma place ?
    Do you think I should tell him? Tu crois que je devrais le lui dire ?
    I could do with ou I need some advice. J'aurais besoin d'un conseil
    Donner un conseil
    Why don't you (just) tell her? Pourquoi ne pas le lui dire (carrément) ?
    Take my advice and say nothing to her. Je te conseille de ne rien lui dire
    If I were you, I'd phone him. Si j'étais toi, je l'appellerais
    If you ask me, I think you should resign. Si tu veux mon avis, je pense que tu devrais démissionner
    Perhaps ou Maybe you should warn him. Peut-être que tu devrais le prévenir
    You could always try writing to him. Ce serait peut-être pas mal de lui écrire
    It might be better to do it yourself. Ce serait peut-être mieux que tu le fasses toi-même
    Now listen to me: you really must go and see a doctor. Écoute, il faut absolument que tu ailles voir un médecin
    If you want my advice, you'll pretend it never happened. Si tu veux mon avis, fais comme si rien ne s'était passé
    I hope you won't take this the wrong way, but... Ne le prends pas mal, mais...
    It's not really any of my business, but... Je sais que ça ne me regarde pas, mais...

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > conseil

  • 8 закон

    юр.
    law; (акт) act, statute

    вводить законы — to make / to introduce laws

    вводить закон в действие — to enact / to implement the law, to put the law into effect / operation

    вступать в силу как закон — to become law, to enter in force

    вступить в противоречие с законом — to come into conflict with law, to contradict the law

    изымать из-под действия закона — to except from operation of the law, to exempt

    нарушать закон — to break / to infringe / to contravene / to violate / to disobey a law

    издать закон — to make / to issue a law обнародовать закон to promulgate / to issue the law

    обходить закон — to evade the law, to go beyond the law

    отменять закон — to abrogate / to annul / to repeal an act / a law, to abate a law

    преступать закон — to transgress / to violate / to break the law

    принимать закон — to adopt / to pass legislation / a law

    соблюдать закон — to follow / to observe / to abide by / to comply with the law

    устанавливать законом — to establish by decree / law

    эти законы скорее разрешают, чем предписывают — these laws are permissive rather than mandatory

    соответствующий закону, установленный законом — statutory

    действующие законы — laws in force / vigour, active laws

    драконовские законы — Draconic / harsh / rigorous laws

    избирательный закон — election / electoral law

    неписаный закон — imperscriptible law / right, unwritten code / law

    непреложный закон — indefeasible law, unalterable law

    основной закон — fundamental / basic law

    введение закона в силу, принятие закона — enactment

    законы об охоте — hunting / game laws

    закон о пэрстве (1963 г., предоставляет право пэрам на отказ от титула, что даёт им возможность баллотироваться в палату общин, Великобритания) — Peerage Act

    закон об обороне — defence act, act of defence

    закон об образовании новой "территории" или превращении "территории" в штат (США) — organic act

    нарушение закона — offence against the law, breach / contravention / infringement / transgression / violation of the law

    в нарушение законов — in contravention / violation of the law

    несоблюдение / неисполнение законов — failure to comply with the laws

    отмена закона — abrogation / repeal of the law

    подписание закона (президентом, королём) — enactment

    постановляющая часть / преамбула закона — enacting clause

    свод законов — code, code of laws, statute book; corpus juris лат.

    вопреки закону — against / contrary / in spite of the law, unlawfully

    в рамках (наших) законов — within the framework of (our) laws

    Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > закон

  • 9 fuero

    m.
    1 code of laws.
    2 jurisdiction, incumbency.
    3 privilege, exemption, prerogative.
    4 presumption, arrogance, air of superiority.
    Tiene demasiados fueros He is too arrogant.
    * * *
    1 (ley) code of laws
    2 (privilegio) privilege; (exención) exemption
    3 (jurisdicción) jurisdiction
    1 (presunción) arrogance
    \
    en el fuero interno de alguien deep down, in one's heart of hearts
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=carta municipal) municipal charter; (=ley local) local/regional law code; (=privilegio) (tb: fueros) privilege, exemption

    ¿con qué fuero? — by what right?

    de fuero — de jure, in law

    2) (=autoridad) jurisdiction
    - volver por sus fueros
    FUEROS Fueros were the charters granted to villages, towns and regions by Spanish monarchs in the Middle Ages and which established their rights and obligations. The fueros under which the Basques and Navarrese received certain privileges (some fiscal autonomy, their own local administration system and exemption from military service outside their province) became a political football in the 19th Century, being alternately abolished and restored depending on the interests of the monarch or administration in power. Today, Navarre is recognized in the Estado de las Autonomías as the Comunidad Foral de Navarra.
    * * *
    a) ( jurisdicción) jurisdiction
    b) (privilegio, derecho) privilege

    en mi/su fuero interno — in my/his heart of hearts, deep down inside

    * * *
    ----
    * fueros = charter.
    * volver a por sus fueros = be back on track, be on track, bite back.
    * * *
    a) ( jurisdicción) jurisdiction
    b) (privilegio, derecho) privilege

    en mi/su fuero interno — in my/his heart of hearts, deep down inside

    * * *
    * fueros = charter.
    * volver a por sus fueros = be back on track, be on track, bite back.
    * * *
    fueros (↑ fuero a1)
    1 (jurisdicción) jurisdiction
    2 (privilegio, derecho) privilege
    los fueros de Navarra the charter of Navarra
    en mi/su fuero interno in my/his heart of hearts, deep down inside
    volver por sus fueros (restablecer el prestigio) to re-establish one's position; (volver a las andadas) to go back to one's old ways
    Compuesto:
    parliamentary privileges (pl)
    * * *

    fuero sustantivo masculino

    b) (privilegio, derecho) privilege;

    ◊ en mi/su fuero interno in my/his heart of hearts, deep down inside

    fuero sustantivo masculino
    1 privilege
    2 Hist code of laws 3 en mi fuero interno, in my heart of hearts
    ' fuero' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    interna
    - interno
    English:
    charter
    - inwardly
    * * *
    fuero nm
    1. [ley local] = ancient regional law still existing in some parts of Spain
    2. [jurisdicción] code of laws
    3. Comp
    en su fuero interno in her heart of hearts, deep down;
    el equipo ha vuelto por sus fueros the team has recovered its form
    * * *
    m
    :
    * * *
    fuero nm
    1) jurisdicción: jurisdiction
    2) : privilege, exemption
    3)
    fuero interno : conscience, heart of hearts

    Spanish-English dictionary > fuero

  • 10 Judicial and Legal System

       The 1976 Constitution and 1982 revisions provide for three fundamental courts, each with different functions, as well as other special courts, including a military court. The three principal courts are the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of Justice, and Supreme Court of Administration. The Constitutional Court determines whether legislative acts (laws) are legal and constitutional. In addition, it ascertains the physical ability of the president of the Republic to perform duties of office, as well as to determine the constitutionality of international agreements. Ten of this court's members are selected by the Assembly of the Republic.
       The Supreme Court of Justice, the highest court of law, heads the court system and tries civil and criminal cases. It includes first courts to try cases and courts of appeal. The Supreme Court of Administration examines the administrative and fiscal conduct of government institutions. All matters concerning judges, including the power to discipline judges whose conduct does not comply with the law, are overseen by the Higher Council of the Bench and the Superior Council of the Administrative and Fiscal Courts. There is also an Ombudsman, elected for a four-year term by the Assembly of the Republic, who serves as chief civil and human rights officer of the country. This officer receives 3,000-4,000 complaints a year from citizens who dispute acts of the judicial and legal system.
       Portugal's system of laws is based on Roman civil law and has been shaped by the French legal system. Unlike common law in the American and British legal systems, Portugal's system of laws is based on a complete body of law so that judicial reason is deductive. Legal precedent, then, has little influence. Portuguese judges are viewed as civil servants simply applying the law from codes, not as a judiciary who interpret law. While the post-1974 judicial and legal system is freer and fairer than that under the Estado Novo dictatorship, it has received criticism on the grounds of being very slow, cumbersome, overburdened with cases, and sometimes corrupt. There has been a backlog of untried cases and long delays before trial because of vacant judgeships and inefficient operations.
       Under Portuguese criminal law, preventive detention for a maximum of four months is legal. Much longer preventive detention terms occur due to the trial backlog. Memories persist of legal abuses under the Estado Novo system, when suspects convicted of crimes against the state could be detained legally for periods of from six months to three years. Media sensationalism and the cited problems of the judicial system exacerbated tensions in recent high-profile trials, including the 2004-05 trial of a child prostitution and pedophile ring, tried in Lisbon, with suspects including a celebrated television personality and a former diplomat.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Judicial and Legal System

  • 11 धर्मः _dharmḥ

    धर्मः [ध्रियते लोको$नेन, धरति लोकं वा धृ-मन्; cf. Uṇ 1. 137]
    1 Religion; the customary observances of a caste, sect, &c.
    -2 Law, usage, practice, custom, ordinance, statue.
    -3 Religious or moral merit, virtue, right- eousness, good works (regarded as one of the four ends of human existence); अनेन धर्मः सविशेषमद्य मे त्रिवर्ग- सारः प्रतिभाति भाविनि Ku.5.38, and see त्रिवर्ग also; एक एव सुहृद्धर्मो निधने$प्यनुयाति यः H.1.63.
    -4 Duty, prescribed course of conduct; षष्ठांशवृत्तेरपि धर्म एषः Ś.5.4; Ms.1.114.
    -5 Right, justice, equity, impartiality.
    -6 Piety, propriety, decorum.
    -7 Morality, ethics
    -8 Nature. disposition, character; उत्पत्स्यते$स्ति मम को$पि समानधर्मा Māl.1.6; प्राणि˚, जीव˚.
    -9 An essential quality, pecu- liarity, characteristic property, (peculiar) attribute; वदन्ति वर्ण्यावर्ण्यानां धर्मैक्यं दीपकं बुधाः Chandr.5.45; Pt.1.34.
    -1 Manner, resemblance, likeness.
    -11 A sacrifice.
    -12 Good company, associating with the virtuous
    -13> Devotion, religious abstraction.
    -14 Manner, mode.
    -15 An Upaniṣad q. v.
    -16 N. of Yudhiṣṭhira, the eldest Pāṇḍava.
    -17 N. of Yama, the god of death.
    -18 A bow.
    -19 A drinker of Soma juice.
    -2 (In astrol.) N. of the ninth lunar man- sion.
    -21 An Arhat of the Jainas.
    -22 The soul.
    -23 Mastery, great skill; दिव्यास्त्रगुणसंपन्नः परं धर्मं गतो युधि Rām.3.31.15.
    -र्मम् A virtuous deed.
    -Comp. -अक्षरम् (pl.) holy mantras; a formula of faith; धर्माक्षराण्युदाहरामि Mk.8.45-46.
    -अङ्गः (
    -ङ्गा f.) the Indian crane.
    -अधर्मौ m. (du.) right and wrong, religion and irreligion; धर्माधर्मौ सपदि गलितौ पुण्यपापे विशीर्णे. ˚विद् m. a Mīmāṁsaka who knows the right and wrong course of action.
    -अधिकरणम् 1 administration of the laws.
    1 a court of justice. (
    -णः) a judge.
    -अधिकरणिकः, -अधिकारिन् m. a judge, magistrate, any judicial functionary.
    -अधिकरणिन् m. a judge, magistrate.
    -अधिकारः 1 superintendence of religious affairs; Ś1.
    -2 ad- ministration of justice.
    -3 the office of a judge.
    -अधि- ष्ठानम् a court of justice.
    -अध्यक्षः 1 a judge.
    -2 an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -अनुष्ठानम् acting according to religion, virtuous or moral conduct.
    -अनुसारः conformity to virtue or justice.
    -अपेत a. deviating from virtue, wicked, immoral, irreligious. (
    -तम्) vice, immorality, injustice.
    -अयनम् course of law, law-suit.
    -अरण्यम् a sacred or penance grove, a wood inhabited by ascetics; धर्मारण्यं प्रविशति गजः Śi.1.32.
    -अर्थौः religious merit and wealth; धर्मार्थौ यत्र न स्याताम् Ms.2.112.
    -अर्थम् ind.
    1 for religious purposes.
    -2 justly, according to justice or right.
    -अलीक a. having a false character.
    -अस्तिकायः (with Jainas) the category or predicament of virtue; cf. अस्तिकाय.
    -अहन् Yesterday.
    -आगमः a religious statute, lawbook.
    -आचार्यः 1 a religious teacher.
    -2 a teacher of law or customs.
    -आत्मजः an epithet of Yudhiṣṭhira q. v.
    -आत्मता religiousmindedness; justice, virtue.
    -आत्मन् a. just righteous, pious, virtuous. (-m.) a saint, a pious man.
    -आश्रय, -आश्रित a. righteous, virtuous; धर्माश्रयं पापिनः (निन्दन्ति) Pt.1.415.
    -आसनम् the throne of justice, judgmentseat, tribunal; न संभावितमद्य धर्मासनमध्यासितुम् Ś.6; धर्मासनाद्विशति वासगृहं नरेन्द्रः U.1.7.
    -इन्द्रः, -ईशः an epithet of Yama; पितॄणामिव धर्मेन्द्रः Mb.7.6.6.
    -ईप्सु a. wishing to gain religious merit; Ms.1.127.
    -उत्तर a. 'rich in virtue,' chiefly characterized by justice, eminently just and impartial; धर्मोत्तरं मध्यममाश्रयन्ते R.13.7.
    -उपचायिन् a. religious; यच्च वः प्रेक्षमाणानां सर्व- धर्मोपचायिनाम् Mb.5.137.16.
    -उपदेशः 1 instruction in law or duty, religious or moral instruction. आर्षं धर्मोपदेशं च वेदशास्त्राविरोधिना । यस्तर्केणानुसंधत्ते स धर्मं वेद नेतरः ॥ Ms.12.16.
    -2 the collective body of laws.
    -उपदेशकः 1 a teacher of the law.
    -2 a spiritual teacher, a Guru.
    -कथकः an expounder of law.
    -कर्मन् n.,
    -कार्यम्, -क्रिया 1 any act of duty or religion, any moral or religious observance, a religious act or rite.
    -2 virtuous conduct.
    -कथादरिद्रः the Kali age.
    -काम a.
    1 devoted to virtue.
    -2 observing duty or right.
    -कायः 1 an epithet of Buddha.
    -2 a Jaina saint.
    -कारणम् Cause of virtue.
    -कीलः 1 a grant, royal edict or decree.
    -2 husband.
    -कृत् a. observing duty, acting justly. (-m.)
    1 N. of Viṣṇu.
    -2 a pious man. धर्मा- धर्मविहीनो$पि धर्ममर्यादास्थापनार्थं धर्ममेव करोतीति धर्मकृत् Bhāg.
    -केतुः an epithet of Buddha.
    -कोशः, -षः the collective body of laws or duties; धर्मकोषस्य गुप्तये Ms.1.99.
    -क्रिया, -कृत्यम् any act of religion, any moral or religious rite.
    -क्षेत्रम् 1 Bhāratavarṣa (the land of religion).
    -2 N. of a plain near Delhi, the scene of the great battle between the Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas; धर्मक्षेत्रे कुरुक्षेत्रे समवेता युयुत्सवः Bg.1.1. (
    -त्रः) a virtuous or pious man.
    -गुप्त a. observing and protecting religion. (
    -प्तः) N. of Viṣṇu.
    -ग्रन्थः a sacred work or scripture.
    -घटः a jar of fragrant water offered daily (to a Brāhmaṇa) in the month of Vaiśākha; एष धर्मघटो दत्तो ब्रह्माविष्णुशिवात्मकः । अस्य प्रदानात् सफला मम सन्तु मनोरथाः ॥
    -घ्न a. immoral, unlawful.
    -चक्रः 1 The wheel or range of the law; Bhddh. Jain.
    -2 a Buddha. ˚मृत् m. a Buddha or Jaina.
    -चरणम्, -चर्या observance of the law, performance of religious duties; शिवेन भर्त्रा सह धर्मचर्या कार्या त्वया मुक्तविचारयेति Ku.7.83; वयसि प्रथमे, मतौ चलायां बहुदोषां हि वदन्ति धर्मचर्याम् Bu. Ch.5.3. चारिन् a. practising virtue, observing the law, virtuous, righteous; स चेत्स्वयं कर्मसु धर्मचारिणां त्वमन्त- रायो भवसि R.3.45. (-m.) an ascetic.
    चारिणी 1 a wife.
    -2 a chaste or virtuous wife. cf. सह˚; इयं चोर्वशी यावदायुस्तव सहधर्मचारिणी भवत्विति V.5.19/2.
    -चिन्तक a.
    1 studying or familiar with duty.
    -2 reflecting on the law.
    -चिन्तनम्, चिन्ता study of virtue, consideration of moral duties, moral reflection.
    -च्छलः fraudulent transgression of law or duty.
    -जः 1 'duly or lawfully born', a legitimate son; cf. Ms.9.17.
    -2 N. of युधिष्ठिर; Mb.15.1.44.
    -जन्मन् m. N. of युधिष्ठिर.
    -जिज्ञासा inquiry into religion or the proper course of conduct; अथातो धर्मजिज्ञासा Jaimini's Sūtra.
    -जीवन a. one who acts according to the rules of his caste or fulfils prescribed duties. (
    -नः) a Brāhmaṇa who maintains himself by assisting other men in the performance of their reli- gious rites; यश्चापि धर्मसमयात्प्रच्युतो धर्मजीवनः Ms.9.273.
    -ज्ञ a.
    1 knowing what is right, conversant with civil or religious law; Ms.7.141;8.179;1.127.
    -2 just, righteous, pious.
    -त्यागः abandoning one's religion, apostacy.
    -दक्षिणा a fee for instruction in the law.
    -दानम् a charitable gift (made without any self-inte- rest.) पात्रेभ्यो दीयते नित्यमनपेक्ष्य प्रयोजनम् । केवलं धर्मबुद्ध्या यद् धर्मदानं प्रचक्षते ॥ Ms.3.262.
    -दुघा a cow milked for religious purposes only.
    -द्रवी N. of the Ganges.
    -दारा m. (pl.) a lawful wife; स्त्रीणां भर्ता धर्मदाराश्च पुंसाम् Māl. 6.18.
    -द्रुह् a. voilating the law or right; निसर्गेण स धर्मस्य गोप्ता धर्मद्रुहो वयम् Mv.2.7.
    -द्रोहिन् m. a demon.
    -धातुः an epithet of Buddha.
    -ध्वजः -ध्वजिन् m. a religious hypocrite, an impostor; Bhāg.3.32.39.
    -नन्दनः an epithet of युधिष्ठिर.
    -नाथः a legal protector, rightful master.
    -नाभः an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -निबन्धिन् a. pious, holy.
    -निवेशः religious devotion.
    -निष्ठ a. devoted to religion or virtue; श्रीमन्तः पान्तु पृथ्वीं प्रशमित- रिपवो धर्मनिष्ठाश्च भूपाः Mk.1.61.
    -निष्पत्तिः f.
    1 discharge or fulfilment of duty.
    -2 moral or religious observance;
    -पत्नी a lawful wife; R.2.2,2,72;8.7; Y.2.128.
    -पथः the way of virtue, a virtuous course of conduct.
    -पर a. religious-minded, pious, righteous.
    -परिणामः rise of righteous conduct in the heart (Jainism); cf. also एतेन भूतेन्द्रियेषु धर्मलक्षणावस्थापरिणामा व्याख्याताः Yoga- darśana.
    -पाठकः a teacher of civil or religious law; Ms.12.111.
    -पालः 'protector of the law', said meta- phorically of (दण्ड) 'punishment or chastisement', or 'sword'.
    -पाडा transgressing the law, an offence against law.
    -पुत्रः 1 a lawful son, a son begotten from a sense of duty and not from mere lust or sensual pleasure.
    -2 an epithet of युधिष्ठिर.
    -3 any one regarded as a son for religious purposes, a spiritual son.
    -प्रचारः (fig.) sword.
    -प्रतिरूपकः a counterfeit of virtue; Ms.11.9.
    -प्रधान a. eminent in piety; धर्मप्रधानं पुरुषं तपसा हतकिल्बिषम् Ms.4.243.
    -प्रवक्तृ m.
    1 an expounder of the law, a legal adviser.
    -2 a religious teacher, prea- cher.
    -प्रवचनम् 1 the science of duty; U.5.23.
    -2 expounding the law. (
    -नः) an epithet of Buddha.
    -प्रेक्ष्य a. religious or virtuous (धर्मदृष्टि); Rām.2.85.16.
    -बाणिजिकः, -वाणिजिकः 1 one who tries to make profit out of his virtue like a merchant.
    -2 one who performs religious rites with a view to reward, like a merchant dealing in transactions for profit.
    -बाह्यः a. contrary to religion or what is right.
    -भगिनी 1 a lawful sister.
    -2 a daughter of the spiritual preceptor.
    -3 a spiritual sister, any one regarded as a sister or discharging the same religious duties एतस्मिन्विहारे मम धर्मभगिनी तिष्ठति Mk.8.46/47.
    -भागिनी a virtuous wife.
    -भाणकः a lecturer or public reader who reads and explains to audiences sacred books like the Bhārata, Bhāgavata, &c.
    -भिक्षुकः a mendicant from virtuous motives; Ms. 11.2.
    -भृत् m.
    1 'a preserver or defender of justice,' a king.
    -2 a virtuous person.
    -भ्रातृ m.
    1 a fellow reli- gious student, a spiritual brother.
    -2 any one regard- ed as a brother from discharging the same religious duties. वानप्रस्थयतिब्रह्मचारिणां रिक्थभागिनः । क्रमेणाचार्यसच्छिष्य- धर्मभ्रात्रेकतीर्थिनः ॥ Y.2.137.
    -महामात्रः a minister of reli- gion, a minister in charge of religious affairs.
    -मूलम् the foundation of civil or religious law, the Vedas.
    -मेघः a particular Samādhi.
    -युगम् the Kṛita age; अथ धर्मयुगे तस्मिन्योगधर्ममनुष्ठिता । महीमनुचचारैका सुलभा नाम भिक्षुकी Mb.12.32.7.
    -यूपः, -योनिः an epithet of Viṣṇu.
    -रति a. 'delighting in virtue or justice', righteous, pious, just; तस्य धर्मरतेरासीद् वृद्धत्वं जरसा विना R.1.23.
    -रत्नम् N. of a Jaina स्मृतिग्रन्थ prepared by Jīmūtavāhana.
    -राज् -m. an epithet of Yama.
    -राज a. धर्मशील q. v.; धर्मराजेन जनकेन महात्मना (विदेहान् रक्षितान्) Mb.12.325 19.
    -राजः an epithet of
    1 Yama.
    -2 Jina.
    -3 युधिष्ठिर.
    -4 a king.
    -राजन् m. N. of युधिष्ठिर.
    -राजिका a monument, a stūpa (Sārnāth Inscrip. of Mahīpāla; Ind. Ant. Vol.14, p.14.)
    -रोधिन् a.
    1 op- posed to law, illegal, unlawful.
    -2 immoral.
    -लक्षणम् 1 the essential mark of law.
    -2 the Vedas. (
    -णा) the Mīmāṁsā philosophy.
    -लोपः 1 irreligion, immorality.
    -2 violation of duty; धर्मलोपभयाद्राज्ञीमृतुस्नातामिमां स्मरन् R. 1.76.
    -वत्सल a. loving piety or duty.
    -वर्तिन् a. just, virtuous.
    -वर्धनः an epithet of Śiva.
    -वादः discussion about law or duty, religious controversy; अनुकल्पः परो धर्मो धर्मवादैस्तु केवलम् Mb.12.165.15.
    -वासरः 1 the day of full moon.
    -2 yesterday.
    -वाहनः 1 an epithet of Śiva.
    -2 a buffalo (being the vehicle of Yama).
    -विद् a. familiar with the law (civil or religious). ˚उत्तमः N. of Viṣṇu.
    -विद्या knowledge of the law or right.
    -विधिः a legal precept or injunction; एष धर्मविधिः कृत्स्नश्चातुर्वर्ण्यस्य कीर्तितः Ms.1.131.
    -विप्लवः violation of duty, immora- lity.
    -विवेचनम् 1 judicial investigation; यस्य शूद्रस्तु कुरुते राज्ञो धर्मविवेचनम् । तस्य सीदति तद्राष्ट्रं पङ्के गौरिव पश्यतः ॥ Ms.8.21.
    -2 dissertation on duty.
    -वीरः (in Rhet.) the sentiment of heroism arising out of virtue or piety, the sentiment of chivalrous piety; the following instance is given in R. G.:-- सपदि विलयमेतु राज्यलक्ष्मीरुपरि पतन्त्वथवा कृपाणधाराः । अपहरतुतरां शिरः कृतान्तो मम तु मतिर्न मनागपैतु धर्मात् ॥ स च दानधर्मयुद्धैर्दयया च समन्वितश्चतुर्धा स्यात् S. D.
    -वृद्ध a. advanced in virtue or piety; न धर्मवृद्धेषु वयः समीक्ष्यते Ku.5.16.
    -वैतंसिकः one who gives away money un- lawfully acquired in the hope of appearing generous.
    -व्यवस्था m. judicial decision, decisive sentence.
    -शाला 1 a court of justice, tribunal.
    -2 any charitabla institu- tion.
    -शासनम्, शास्त्रम् a code of laws, jurisprudence; न धर्मशास्त्रं पठतीति कारणम् H.1.17; Y.1.5. [मनुर्यमो वसिष्ठो$त्रिः दक्षो विष्णुस्तथाङ्गिराः । उशना वाक्पतिर्व्यास आपस्तम्बो$ थ गौतमः ॥ कात्यायनो नारदश्च याज्ञवल्क्यः पराशरः । संवर्तश्चैव शङ्खश्च हारीतो लिखितस्तथा ॥ एतैर्यानि प्रणीतानि धर्मशास्त्राणि वै पुरा । तान्येवातिप्रमाणानि न हन्तव्यानि हेतुभिः ॥]
    -शील a. just, pious, virtuous.
    -शुद्धिः a correct knowledge of the law; प्रत्यक्षं चानुमानं च शास्त्रं च विविधागमम् । त्रयं सुविदितं कार्यं धर्मशुद्धिमभीप्सता ॥ Ms.12.15.
    -संहिता a code of laws (especially compiled by sages like Manu, Yājñavalkya, &c.).
    -संगः 1 attachmet to justice or virtue.
    -2 hypocrisy.
    -संगीतिः 1 discussion about law.
    -2 (with Buddhists) a council.
    -सभा a court of justice.
    -समयः a legal obligation; यश्चापि धर्मसमयात्प्रच्युतो धर्मजीवनः Ms.9.273.
    -सहायः a partner or companion in the discharge of religious duties.
    -सूः m. the fork-tailed shrike.
    -सूत्रम् a book on पूर्वमीमांसा written by Jaimini.
    -सेतुः an epithet of Śiva.
    -सेवनम् fulfilment of duties.
    -स्थः a judge; धर्मस्थः कारणैरेतैर्हीनं तमिति निर्दिशेत् Ms.8.57.
    -स्थीय a. Concerning law; धर्मस्थीयं तृतीयं प्रकरणम् Kau. A.3.
    -स्वामिन् m. an epithet of Buddha.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > धर्मः _dharmḥ

  • 12 ordenanza

    f.
    ordinance, law.
    m.
    1 messenger.
    2 orderly (military).
    3 office boy, orderly.
    4 command, order, ordinance.
    * * *
    1 (soldado) orderly
    2 (empleado) office boy
    1 (norma) ordinance
    \
    * * *
    1.
    SF (=decreto) ordinance, decree
    2. SMF
    1) [en oficina] messenger
    2) (=bedel) porter
    3) (Mil) orderly
    * * *
    I
    femenino ordinance, bylaw
    II
    masculino ( en oficinas) porter; (Mil) orderly, batman (BrE)
    * * *
    I
    femenino ordinance, bylaw
    II
    masculino ( en oficinas) porter; (Mil) orderly, batman (BrE)
    * * *
    ordenanza1
    1 = porter, orderly.

    Ex: Thus charwomen and porters in a university work in an institution where books are used a great deal but they themselves are highly unlikely to use them.

    Ex: Vice Admiral Nazitoff was shot and killed by an orderly in his room to-day.
    * ordenanza de biblioteca = page.

    ordenanza2
    2 = by-law [bye-law, -USA], ordinance.

    Ex: By-laws are prohibitive -- ie they tell people what they are not allowed to do -- and they are enforceable at law.

    Ex: Naturally, it is essential that the library administration and the reference librarian develop a coordinated policy of how the relevant statutes and ordinances shall be applied.
    * ordenanza municipal = municipal ordinance.

    * * *
    ordinance, bylaw
    1 (en oficinas) porter
    2 ( Mil) orderly, batman
    3 (preso) trusty
    * * *

    ordenanza sustantivo masculino ( en oficinas) porter;
    (Mil) orderly, batman (BrE)
    ordenanza
    I sustantivo masculino
    1 (en una oficina) office boy, porter
    2 Mil orderly
    II sustantivo femenino regulations, by-laws
    ' ordenanza' also found in these entries:
    English:
    by-law
    - orderly
    - by
    * * *
    ♦ nm
    1. [de oficina] office boy
    2. Mil orderly
    ♦ nf
    ordinance, law;
    * * *
    I f by-law
    II m
    1 office junior, gofer fam
    2 MIL orderly
    * * *
    reglamento: ordinance, regulation
    : orderly (in the armed forces)

    Spanish-English dictionary > ordenanza

  • 13 decreto

    m.
    1 decree.
    por real decreto by royal decree
    2 writ.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: decretar.
    * * *
    1 decree, order
    \
    decreto ley decree
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM decree, order; (Parl) act

    por real decreto — (lit) by royal decree; (fig) compulsorily, willy-nilly

    * * *
    masculino decree
    * * *
    = decree, act, fiat, edict, ordinance.
    Ex. Amongst these are numbered: some specific legal and governmental works, such as laws, decrees, treaties; works that record the collective thought of a body, for example, reports of commissions and committees; and various cartographic materials.
    Ex. This act allowed for the establishment of town libraries, which were free and open to all ratepayers and provided by funds from local rates.
    Ex. Rules have been changed by trial-and-error, by logical argument and counter-argument, and by fiat.
    Ex. A French edict of 1571 set the maximum price of Latin textbooks in large type at 3 deniers a sheet.
    Ex. Naturally, it is essential that the library administration and the reference librarian develop a coordinated policy of how the relevant statutes and ordinances shall be applied.
    ----
    * legislación por decreto ley = delegated legislation.
    * * *
    masculino decree
    * * *
    = decree, act, fiat, edict, ordinance.

    Ex: Amongst these are numbered: some specific legal and governmental works, such as laws, decrees, treaties; works that record the collective thought of a body, for example, reports of commissions and committees; and various cartographic materials.

    Ex: This act allowed for the establishment of town libraries, which were free and open to all ratepayers and provided by funds from local rates.
    Ex: Rules have been changed by trial-and-error, by logical argument and counter-argument, and by fiat.
    Ex: A French edict of 1571 set the maximum price of Latin textbooks in large type at 3 deniers a sheet.
    Ex: Naturally, it is essential that the library administration and the reference librarian develop a coordinated policy of how the relevant statutes and ordinances shall be applied.
    * legislación por decreto ley = delegated legislation.

    * * *
    decree
    Compuesto:
    ( Chi) law-ranking decree
    * * *

     

    Del verbo decretar: ( conjugate decretar)

    decreto es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    decretó es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    decretar    
    decreto
    decretar ( conjugate decretar) verbo transitivo
    to order, decree (frml)
    decreto sustantivo masculino
    decree
    decretar verbo transitivo to decree: el Gobierno decretó una amnistía general, the Government granted a general amnesty
    decreto sustantivo masculino decree
    decreto-ley, GB Pol frml order in council
    ' decreto' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    decretar
    - vigencia
    - vigente
    - vigor
    English:
    act
    - decree
    - edict
    - remand
    * * *
    decree
    decreto ley government decree
    * * *
    m decree
    * * *
    : decree

    Spanish-English dictionary > decreto

  • 14 Gesetz

    Gesetz n POL, RECHT (BE) Act of Parliament, (AE) Act of Congress (Gesetzgebung); law, act, statute (geltendes Recht); lex (Latein) • das Gesetz einhalten RECHT respect the law, abide by the law • das Gesetz zwingt niemanden, Unmögliches zu tun RECHT lex non cogit ad impossibilia • dem Gesetz zuwiderhandeln RECHT fail to observe the law, contravene the law • durch Gesetz RECHT by statute (geschriebenes Recht, Statut, Satzung) • ein Gesetz abschaffen RECHT repeal a law • ein Gesetz aufheben RECHT repeal a law • ein Gesetz beschließen RECHT pass a law, carry a law • ein Gesetz verletzen RECHT fall foul of the law, violate the law • gegen das Gesetz RECHT against the law, unlawful, illegal • gegen das Gesetz verstoßen RECHT break the law • nicht nach dem Gesetz handeln RECHT fail to observe the law • vor dem Gesetz RECHT in the eyes of the law
    * * *
    n <Pol, Recht> Gesetzgebung Act of Parliament (BE), Act of Congress (AE) geltendes Recht law, act, statute Latin lex ■ das Gesetz einhalten < Recht> respect the law, abide by the law ■ das Gesetz zwingt niemanden, Unmögliches zu tun < Recht> lex non cogit ad impossibilia ■ dem Gesetz zuwiderhandeln < Recht> fail to observe the law, contravene the law ■ durch Gesetz < Recht> geschriebenes Recht, Statut, Satzung by statute ■ ein Gesetz abschaffen < Recht> repeal a law ■ ein Gesetz aufheben < Recht> repeal a law ■ ein Gesetz verletzen < Recht> fall foul of the law, violate the law ■ nicht nach dem Gesetz handeln < Recht> fail to observe the law ■ vor dem Gesetz < Recht> in the eyes of the law
    * * *
    Gesetz
    law, parliamentary act, (Erlass) act, enactment, decree, (Gesetzesvorlage) bill;
    • aufgrund eines Gesetzes by virtue of a law;
    • im Sinne dieses Gesetzes within the meaning of this law;
    • kraft Gesetzes by operation of law;
    • nach bestehenden Gesetzen under existing laws;
    • nicht den Gesetzen des Gastlandes unterworfen extraterritorial;
    • vom Gesetz vorgeschrieben mandatory;
    • anwendbares Gesetz law applicable;
    • aufgehobenes Gesetz extinct law;
    • von der Regierung eingebrachtes Gesetz administration bill (US);
    • im Verordnungswege erlassenes Gesetz decree law;
    • eurobezogene Gesetze euro-related legislation;
    • gewerbepolizeiliches Gesetz Factory Act (Br.);
    • gültiges Gesetz operative (established) law;
    • ökonomisches Gesetz economic law;
    • rückwirkendes Gesetz ex-post-facto (retroactive) law;
    • umweltpolitische Gesetze environmental legislation;
    • ungültiges Gesetz dead law;
    • verbrauchsbeschränkendes Gesetz sumptuary law;
    • zwingendes Gesetz binding law;
    • Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage general law of demand, law of supply and demand;
    • Gesetz über Arbeitsverträge (Finnland) Contracts of Employment Act;
    • Gesetz über die Arbeitsumgebung Work Environment Act;
    • Gesetz zur Aufrechterhaltung der Vollbeschäftigung Employment Act (US);
    • Gesetz über Bausparkassen Building Societies Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz zur Bekämpfung von Verbrechen und Aufruhr Crime and Disorder Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz zur Beschränkung der Gastwirtshaftung Hotel Proprietors Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über die Beziehungen zwischen den Rassen Race Relations Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz vom abnehmenden Bodenertrag law of diminishing returns;
    • Gesetz über das Bundesaufsichtsamt für das Versicherungswesen Federal Credit Union Act (US);
    • Gesetz über die Diskriminierung Behinderter Disability Discrimination Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz des Durchschnittsprofits law of average profit;
    • Gesetz zur Einführung der Sommerzeit Daylight Saving Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über ungerechtfertigte Entlassung (Irland) Unfair Dismissal Act;
    • Gesetz der seltenen Ereignisse Poisson distribution;
    • Gesetz über die Errichtung gemeinnütziger Stiftungen Charities Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz vom abnehmenden Ertragszuwachs law of returns to scale;
    • Gesetz der Europäischen Gemeinschaften European Communities Bill;
    • Gesetz in der Fassung vom... law as amended on...;
    • Gesetz zur Finanzierung des sozialen Wohnungsbaues Housing Finance Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über die Gemeinschaftsaufgabe zur Verbesserung der regionalen Wirtschaftsstruktur Town and Country Planning Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über die Gleichberechtigung im Erwerbsleben (Irland) Employment Equality Act;
    • Gesetz des abnehmenden Grenznutzens law of diminishing utility;
    • Gesetz der abnehmenden Grenzproduktivität law of diminishing marginal productivity;
    • Gesetz zum Jugendschutz im Internet Children‘s On-line Privacy Protection Act (COPPA);
    • Gesetz der komparativen Kosten law of comparative costs;
    • Gesetz mit rückwirkender Kraft retrospective law;
    • Gesetz über eingetragene gleichgeschlechtliche Lebensgemeinschaften (Dänemark) law on registered same-sex partnerships;
    • Gesetz über Lebensversicherungsanstalten Assurance Companies Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über Löhne, Arbeitszeit und Arbeitsbedingungen Fair Labor Standards Act (US);
    • Gesetz über die Neufestsetzung von Einheitswerten Rating and Valuation Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über die öffentliche Ordnung Public Order Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über die Preisbindung von Markenartikeln Fair Trading (Br.) (Fair Trade, US) Act;
    • Gesetz über die Rechte und Pflichten von Hotelinhabern (Irland) Hotel Proprietors’ Act;
    • Gesetze und [Rechts]verordnungen laws and regulations;
    • Gesetz zur Regelung von Entlassungsabfindungen Redundancy Payments Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz zur Regelung von Lebensgemeinschaften partnership law;
    • Gesetz über Sicherheit am Arbeitsplatz Occupational Safety Act;
    • Gesetz über Sozialversicherungsabgaben Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) (US);
    • Gesetz über die Steigerung der Arbeitsproduktivität law of growth of productivity;
    • Gesetz zum Verbot der Aufwiegelung zu Hass (Irland) Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred Act;
    • Gesetz zur Verhütung von Kapitalanlagenbetrug Prevention of Fraud Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über Versicherungsgesellschaften Insurance Companies Act (Br.);
    • Gesetz über Videoaufzeichnungen Video Recordings Act;
    • Gesetz zur Wahrung des Bankgeheimnisses banking secrecy law;
    • Gesetze gegen den unlauteren Wettbewerb Unfair Trade Practices Acts (US);
    • Gesetz abändern to amend a bill, to revise a law;
    • Gesetz ablehnen (parl.) to kill a bill;
    • Gesetz annehmen to carry a law;
    • dem Gesetz Gewalt antun to strain a law;
    • Gesetz mit aller Strenge anwenden to put a law in force with all its rigo(u)r;
    • Gesetz aufheben to repeal (abolish, abrogate) a law;
    • Gesetz auslegen to construe (expound) a law;
    • Gesetz befolgen to comply with a law;
    • Gesetz nicht befolgen to disobey the law;
    • Gesetz beschließen (parl.) to carry (pass) a bill;
    • Gesetz durchpeitschen to jam a bill through Congress (US), to rattle (rush) a bill through the House (Br.);
    • Gesetz einbringen to introduce (table, Br.) a bill;
    • schärfere Gesetze erfordern to demand ever-stricter laws;
    • Gewohnheitsrecht zum Gesetz erheben to erect a custom into law;
    • in den Anwendungsbereich eines Gesetzes fallen to come under the provisions of a law;
    • Lücke im Gesetz finden to find a loophole in the law;
    • Gesetz wirkungslos machen to make a law of no effect;
    • im Gesetz nachlesen to read up in a law;
    • Schutz eines Gesetzes in Anspruch nehmen to claim the benefit of a law;
    • Gesetz außer Kraft setzen to invalidate (rescind) an act;
    • Gesetz vorübergehend außer Kraft setzen to suspend the operation of a law;
    • Gesetz in Kraft setzen to give effect to a law, to put a law into force;
    • Gesetz umgehen to get around (dodge, circumvent) a law;
    • Gesetz verabschieden to carry (pass) a bill, to pass an act;
    • Gesetz über Lebensgemeinschaften verabschieden to adopt a law on domestic partnerships;
    • gegen ein Gesetz verstoßen to violate (offend against) a law;
    • gegen den Geist eines Gesetzes verstoßen to circumvent the spirit of a law;
    • Gesetz verwässern to water down a bill;
    • dem Gesetz zuwiderhandeln to run counter to a law;
    • Gesetzabänderungsvorschlag einbringen to give notice of an amendment [to a bill];
    • Gesetzänderung amendment [to a bill];
    • Gesetzannahme carrying (passage) of a bill;
    • Gesetzantrag [draft for a parliamentary] bill;
    • Gesetzantrag nicht durchbringen to lose a bill;
    • Gesetzanwendung law enforcement;
    • entsprechende Gesetzanwendung equity of a statute;
    • Gesetzauslegung interpretation of a law;
    • Gesetzberatung reading of a bill;
    • Gesetzblatt Official Register (US) (Gazette, Br.);
    • Gesetzbuch statute book, code.

    Business german-english dictionary > Gesetz

  • 15 Recht

    I Adj.
    1. (richtig) right; am rechten Ort in the right place; vom rechten Weg abkommen lose one’s way; fig. go off the rails, stray from the straight and narrow; ich habe keinen rechten Appetit I don’t really feel like eating anything; ganz recht! quite right!, Am. absolutely!; so ist’s recht that’s right, that’s the stuff umg.; es ist nicht recht, dass wenige alles haben it’s not right that everything is in the hands of a few; das ist nur recht und billig it’s only fair ( oder right and proper); das ist alles recht und schön, aber... that’s all very well, but...; alles was recht ist! fair’s fair; (das geht zu weit) you can go too far, there’s a limit; schon recht! all right, Am. umg. alright; was dem einen recht ist, ist dem andern billig what’s sauce (Am. good) for the goose is sauce (Am. good) for the gander
    2. (passend, angebracht) right, proper, suitable; der rechte Augenblick the right ( oder a suitable) moment
    3. (gesetzmäßig) lawful, legitimate
    4. (wirklich) true, real; ein rechter Narr a right (Am. complete) fool
    5. (gut) good
    6. (akzeptabel) all right, Am. umg. alright; mir ist’s recht I don’t mind, it’s all right (Am. umg. alright) with me, (it) suits me; mir ist alles recht it’s all the same to me, I don’t mind either way; ihm ist jedes Mittel recht he’ll stop (stick umg.) at nothing
    7. subst.: nach dem Rechten sehen make sure everything’s all right (Am. umg. alright); es war nichts Rechtes it wasn’t the real thing; nichts Rechtes gelernt haben have learnt (Am. learned) no proper trade; aus ihm kann ja nichts Rechtes werden he will never come to anything; nichts Rechtes mit jemandem / etw. anzufangen wissen not know what to do with s.o. / s.th.; Recht, richtig, Ding 2, Licht, schlecht II
    II Adv.
    1. (richtig) properly; recht daran tun zu (+ Inf.) do right to (+ Inf.) es geschieht ihr recht it serves her right; sie will es allen recht machen she wants to please everybody; man kann es nicht allen recht machen you can’t please everyone ( oder all the people all of the time); dir kann man auch nichts recht machen one can’t do anything right for you, everything I do is wrong (for you); ich weiß nicht recht I’m not sure, I really don’t know; wenn ich es mir recht überlege when I think about it; ich werde nicht recht klug daraus I don’t quite know what to make of it; wenn ich Sie recht verstehe if I understand you right(ly); verstehen Sie mich recht! don’t get me wrong; ich seh wohl nicht recht! I must be seeing things; ich hör wohl nicht recht! I can’t believe what you’re saying, say that again; (das kann nicht dein Ernst sein) you can’t be serious; du kommst mir gerade recht just the person I want; iro. you’re the last person I wanted (to see)
    2. (sehr) very; (ziemlich) rather, bes. Am. somewhat, pretty umg.; recht enttäuscht rather disappointed; recht geschickt rather ( oder very) clever, Am. umg. pretty smart; recht gut pretty good ( oder well); es gefällt mir recht gut I rather ( stärker: really) like it, Am. auch I like it a lot; erst recht all the more (so)
    * * *
    das Recht
    (Anspruch) right;
    * * *
    Rẹcht [rɛçt]
    nt -(e)s, -e
    1) (= Rechtsordnung, sittliche Norm) law; (= Gerechtigkeit) justice

    Recht sprechen — to administer or dispense justice

    das Schwurgericht hat für Recht erkannt... — the court has reached the following verdict or has decided...

    von Rechts wegen — legally, as of right; (inf

    2) pl form = Rechtswissenschaft) jurisprudence
    3) (= Anspruch, Berechtigung) right (
    auf +acc to, zu to)

    ich nehme mir das Recht, das zu tun — I shall make so bold as to do that

    sein Recht bekommen or erhalten or kriegen (inf) — to get one's rights, to get what is one's by right

    zu seinem Recht kommen (lit) — to gain one's rights; (fig) to come into one's own

    der Körper verlangt sein Recht auf Schlaf — the body demands its rightful sleep

    gleiche Rechte, gleiche Pflichten — equal rights, equal duties

    mit or zu Recht — rightly, with justification

    Sie stellen diese Frage ganz zu Recht — you are quite right to ask this question

    im Recht sein — to be in the right

    es ist unser gutes Recht, zu erfahren... — we have every right to know...

    woher nimmt er das Recht, das zu sagen? — what gives him the right to say that?

    See:
    4)

    er hat recht bekommen — he was right

    ich hatte recht, und ich habe recht behalten — I was right and I'm still right

    * * *
    das
    1) (the collection of rules according to which people live or a country etc is governed: Such an action is against the law; law and order.) law
    2) (to be fair to someone.) give (someone) his due
    3) (the law or the administration of it: Their dispute had to be settled in a court of justice.) justice
    4) (something a person is, or ought to be, allowed to have, do etc: Everyone has the right to a fair trial; You must fight for your rights; You have no right to say that.) right
    5) (at the right; to the right of something else: the top right-hand drawer of my desk.) right-hand
    * * *
    <-[e]s, -e>
    [rɛçt]
    nt
    das Gericht hat für \Recht erkannt, dass... the court has reached the verdict [or has decided] that...
    das \Recht war auf ihrer Seite she had right on her side
    \Recht des Erfüllungsortes lex loci solutionis
    \Recht des Gerichtsortes lex fori
    \Recht der unerlaubten Handlungen law of torts
    \Recht des Kaufvertrags law of sales
    \Recht der belegenen Sache lex situs [or rei sitae]
    das \Recht des Stärkeren the law of the jungle
    \Recht des Vertragsortes lex loci contractus
    akzessorisches \Recht accessory right
    alleiniges/veräußerliches \Recht sole/alienable right
    ausländisches \Recht foreign law
    bürgerliches/kirchliches [o kanonisches] /öffentliches \Recht civil/canon/public law
    dispositives \Recht optional rules pl, flexible law
    formelles/materielles \Recht procedural/substantive law
    geltendes \Recht prevailing law
    objektives \Recht objective law
    positives \Recht positive law
    zwingendes \Recht cogent [or binding] law
    das Recht \Recht to bend the law
    das \Recht brechen to break the law
    für das Recht \Recht to fight for justice
    \Recht sprechen to dispense [or administer] justice [or the law]
    das \Recht mit Füßen treten to fly in the face of the law
    gegen \Recht und Gesetz verstoßen to infringe [or violate] the law
    nach deutschem \Recht in [or under] [or according to] German law
    nach geltendem \Recht under existing law
    2. (juristischer oder moralischer Anspruch) right
    gleiches \Recht für alle! equal rights for all!
    das ist dein gutes \Recht that is your right
    mit welchem \Recht hat sie das getan? by what right did she do that?
    ich nehme mir das \Recht, das zu tun I shall make so bold as to do that
    ▪ jds \Recht auf jdn/etw sb's right to sb/sth
    \Recht auf Ablehnung eines Richters right of rejection
    das \Recht auf einen Anwalt/auf Verweigerung der Aussage the right to a lawyer/to remain silent
    das \Recht auf Arbeit the right to work
    \Recht auf Entnahme FIN right of withdrawal
    \Recht auf [rechtliches] Gehör right to be heard [or of audience [in court]]
    \Recht auf ungestörte Nutzung right of quiet enjoyment
    \Rechte und Pflichten laws and duties
    \Recht auf Prüfung der Bücher FIN right to inspect the books
    abgeleitetes \Recht derivative right
    dingliches \Recht right in rem, real right
    grundstücksgleiches \Recht full legal title to land
    subjektives \Recht [individual's] right
    subjektiv dingliches \Recht right ad [or in] rem
    wohl erworbenes \Recht vested right [or interest]
    ein \Recht ausüben/verlieren to exercise/forfeit a right
    ein \Recht begründen/genießen to establish/enjoy a right
    jds \Rechte beeinträchtigen/verletzen to encroach/to trespass upon sb's rights
    auf seinem \Recht beharren to stand on one's rights
    sein \Recht bekommen [o erhalten] [o (fam) kriegen] to get one's rights [or justice] [or one's dues]
    sein \Recht fordern [o verlangen] to demand one's rights
    der Körper verlangt sein \Recht the body demands its due
    der Körper verlangt sein Recht auf Schlaf the body demands its due [or rightful] sleep
    seine \Rechte geltend machen to insist on one's rights
    ein \Recht auf etw haben to have a right to sth
    zu seinem \Recht kommen to get justice [or one's rights]; (fig) to be given due attention
    auf sein \Recht pochen [o bestehen] to insist on one's rights
    auf ein \Recht verzichten to relinquish a right
    alle \Rechte vorbehalten all rights reserved
    wohl erworbene \Rechte acquired [or vested] rights
    von \Rechts wegen legally, as of right; (eigentlich) by rights
    3. kein pl (Befugnis, Berechtigung) right
    was gibt Ihnen das \Recht,...? what gives you the right...?
    mit welchem \Recht? by what right?
    woher nimmst du das \Recht, das zu sagen? what gives you the right to say that?
    zu etw dat kein \Recht haben to have no right to sth
    jds gutes \Recht sein[, etw zu tun] to be sb's [legal] right [to do sth]
    das ist mein gutes \Recht it's my right
    es ist mein gutes \Recht, zu erfahren... I have every right to know...
    etw mit [gutem] \Recht tun to be [quite] right to do sth
    sich dat das \Recht vorbehalten, etw zu tun to reserve the right to do sth
    mit [o zu] \Recht rightly, with justification
    und das mit \Recht! and rightly so!
    du stellst mir die Frage ganz zu \Recht you are quite right to ask this question
    4. (das Richtige, Zustehende) right
    wo [o wenn] er \Recht hat, hat er \Recht when he's right, he's right
    [mit etw dat] \Recht behalten to be [proved] right [about sth]
    \Recht bekommen to win one's case
    jdm \Recht geben to admit that sb is right, to agree with sb
    \Recht haben to be [in the] right
    im \Recht sein to be in the right
    5. (veraltet: Rechtswissenschaft) jurisprudence
    Doktor der [o beider] \Rechte Doctor of Laws
    6.
    ▶ \Recht muss \Recht bleiben (Naturrecht) fair's fair; (Gesetz) the law is the law
    ▶ gleiche \Rechte, gleiche Pflichten (prov) equal rights, equal duties; s.a. Fug, Gnade
    * * *
    das; Recht[e]s, Rechte

    das Recht brechen/beugen — break/bend the law

    Recht sprechen — administer the law; administer justice

    von Rechts wegen — by law; (ugs.): (eigentlich) by rights

    2) (Rechtsanspruch) right

    alle Rechte vorbehalten — all rights reserved

    sein Recht fordern od. verlangen — demand one's rights

    zu seinem Recht kommen — (fig.) be given due attention

    3) o. Pl. (Berechtigung) right (auf + Akk. to)

    zu Recht — rightly; with justification

    4)

    jemandem Recht geben — concede or admit that somebody is right

    * * *
    Recht n; -(e)s, -e
    1. JUR (Gesetze) law; (Anspruch, Berechtigung) right; (Vollmacht, Befugnis) authority;
    bürgerliches/öffentliches Recht civil/public law;
    Recht und Ordnung law and order;
    verletzen break the law;
    Recht muss Recht bleiben the law’s the law; fig fair’s fair;
    nach geltendem Recht under existing law;
    nach deutschem Recht under German law;
    alle Rechte vorbehalten all rights reserved;
    etwas mit vollem Recht tun have every right to do sth;
    von Rechts wegen by rights; JUR by law;
    Recht sprechen administer justice;
    das Recht haben zu (+inf) have the right ( oder be entitled) to (+inf) Bevollmächtigter: be empowered to (+inf)
    im Recht sein, das Recht auf seiner Seite haben be in the right;
    das Recht auf Streik the right to strike;
    das Recht auf freie Meinungsäußerung the right of free speech;
    gleiches Recht für alle equal rights for all;
    sich selbst Recht verschaffen take the law into one’s own hands;
    auf seinem Recht bestehen assert one’s rights;
    auf sein Recht pochen insist on one’s rights;
    (wieder) zu seinem Recht kommen come into one’s own (again);
    mit welchem Recht tut er das? what right has he got to do that?;
    2. fig
    ich nehme mir das Recht zu (+inf) I take it upon myself to (+inf)
    zu Recht rightly; alleinstehend: rightly so
    * * *
    das; Recht[e]s, Rechte

    das Recht brechen/beugen — break/bend the law

    Recht sprechen — administer the law; administer justice

    von Rechts wegen — by law; (ugs.): (eigentlich) by rights

    sein Recht fordern od. verlangen — demand one's rights

    zu seinem Recht kommen — (fig.) be given due attention

    3) o. Pl. (Berechtigung) right (auf + Akk. to)

    zu Recht — rightly; with justification

    4)

    jemandem Recht geben — concede or admit that somebody is right

    * * *
    -e m.
    due n. -e n.
    claim n.
    justice n.
    law n.
    privilege n.
    right n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Recht

  • 16 recht

    I Adj.
    1. (richtig) right; am rechten Ort in the right place; vom rechten Weg abkommen lose one’s way; fig. go off the rails, stray from the straight and narrow; ich habe keinen rechten Appetit I don’t really feel like eating anything; ganz recht! quite right!, Am. absolutely!; so ist’s recht that’s right, that’s the stuff umg.; es ist nicht recht, dass wenige alles haben it’s not right that everything is in the hands of a few; das ist nur recht und billig it’s only fair ( oder right and proper); das ist alles recht und schön, aber... that’s all very well, but...; alles was recht ist! fair’s fair; (das geht zu weit) you can go too far, there’s a limit; schon recht! all right, Am. umg. alright; was dem einen recht ist, ist dem andern billig what’s sauce (Am. good) for the goose is sauce (Am. good) for the gander
    2. (passend, angebracht) right, proper, suitable; der rechte Augenblick the right ( oder a suitable) moment
    3. (gesetzmäßig) lawful, legitimate
    4. (wirklich) true, real; ein rechter Narr a right (Am. complete) fool
    5. (gut) good
    6. (akzeptabel) all right, Am. umg. alright; mir ist’s recht I don’t mind, it’s all right (Am. umg. alright) with me, (it) suits me; mir ist alles recht it’s all the same to me, I don’t mind either way; ihm ist jedes Mittel recht he’ll stop (stick umg.) at nothing
    7. subst.: nach dem Rechten sehen make sure everything’s all right (Am. umg. alright); es war nichts Rechtes it wasn’t the real thing; nichts Rechtes gelernt haben have learnt (Am. learned) no proper trade; aus ihm kann ja nichts Rechtes werden he will never come to anything; nichts Rechtes mit jemandem / etw. anzufangen wissen not know what to do with s.o. / s.th.; Recht, richtig, Ding 2, Licht, schlecht II
    II Adv.
    1. (richtig) properly; recht daran tun zu (+ Inf.) do right to (+ Inf.) es geschieht ihr recht it serves her right; sie will es allen recht machen she wants to please everybody; man kann es nicht allen recht machen you can’t please everyone ( oder all the people all of the time); dir kann man auch nichts recht machen one can’t do anything right for you, everything I do is wrong (for you); ich weiß nicht recht I’m not sure, I really don’t know; wenn ich es mir recht überlege when I think about it; ich werde nicht recht klug daraus I don’t quite know what to make of it; wenn ich Sie recht verstehe if I understand you right(ly); verstehen Sie mich recht! don’t get me wrong; ich seh wohl nicht recht! I must be seeing things; ich hör wohl nicht recht! I can’t believe what you’re saying, say that again; (das kann nicht dein Ernst sein) you can’t be serious; du kommst mir gerade recht just the person I want; iro. you’re the last person I wanted (to see)
    2. (sehr) very; (ziemlich) rather, bes. Am. somewhat, pretty umg.; recht enttäuscht rather disappointed; recht geschickt rather ( oder very) clever, Am. umg. pretty smart; recht gut pretty good ( oder well); es gefällt mir recht gut I rather ( stärker: really) like it, Am. auch I like it a lot; erst recht all the more (so)
    * * *
    das Recht
    (Anspruch) right;
    * * *
    Rẹcht [rɛçt]
    nt -(e)s, -e
    1) (= Rechtsordnung, sittliche Norm) law; (= Gerechtigkeit) justice

    Recht sprechen — to administer or dispense justice

    das Schwurgericht hat für Recht erkannt... — the court has reached the following verdict or has decided...

    von Rechts wegen — legally, as of right; (inf

    2) pl form = Rechtswissenschaft) jurisprudence
    3) (= Anspruch, Berechtigung) right (
    auf +acc to, zu to)

    ich nehme mir das Recht, das zu tun — I shall make so bold as to do that

    sein Recht bekommen or erhalten or kriegen (inf) — to get one's rights, to get what is one's by right

    zu seinem Recht kommen (lit) — to gain one's rights; (fig) to come into one's own

    der Körper verlangt sein Recht auf Schlaf — the body demands its rightful sleep

    gleiche Rechte, gleiche Pflichten — equal rights, equal duties

    mit or zu Recht — rightly, with justification

    Sie stellen diese Frage ganz zu Recht — you are quite right to ask this question

    im Recht sein — to be in the right

    es ist unser gutes Recht, zu erfahren... — we have every right to know...

    woher nimmt er das Recht, das zu sagen? — what gives him the right to say that?

    See:
    4)

    er hat recht bekommen — he was right

    ich hatte recht, und ich habe recht behalten — I was right and I'm still right

    * * *
    das
    1) (the collection of rules according to which people live or a country etc is governed: Such an action is against the law; law and order.) law
    2) (to be fair to someone.) give (someone) his due
    3) (the law or the administration of it: Their dispute had to be settled in a court of justice.) justice
    4) (something a person is, or ought to be, allowed to have, do etc: Everyone has the right to a fair trial; You must fight for your rights; You have no right to say that.) right
    5) (at the right; to the right of something else: the top right-hand drawer of my desk.) right-hand
    * * *
    <-[e]s, -e>
    [rɛçt]
    nt
    das Gericht hat für \Recht erkannt, dass... the court has reached the verdict [or has decided] that...
    das \Recht war auf ihrer Seite she had right on her side
    \Recht des Erfüllungsortes lex loci solutionis
    \Recht des Gerichtsortes lex fori
    \Recht der unerlaubten Handlungen law of torts
    \Recht des Kaufvertrags law of sales
    \Recht der belegenen Sache lex situs [or rei sitae]
    das \Recht des Stärkeren the law of the jungle
    \Recht des Vertragsortes lex loci contractus
    akzessorisches \Recht accessory right
    alleiniges/veräußerliches \Recht sole/alienable right
    ausländisches \Recht foreign law
    bürgerliches/kirchliches [o kanonisches] /öffentliches \Recht civil/canon/public law
    dispositives \Recht optional rules pl, flexible law
    formelles/materielles \Recht procedural/substantive law
    geltendes \Recht prevailing law
    objektives \Recht objective law
    positives \Recht positive law
    zwingendes \Recht cogent [or binding] law
    das Recht \Recht to bend the law
    das \Recht brechen to break the law
    für das Recht \Recht to fight for justice
    \Recht sprechen to dispense [or administer] justice [or the law]
    das \Recht mit Füßen treten to fly in the face of the law
    gegen \Recht und Gesetz verstoßen to infringe [or violate] the law
    nach deutschem \Recht in [or under] [or according to] German law
    nach geltendem \Recht under existing law
    2. (juristischer oder moralischer Anspruch) right
    gleiches \Recht für alle! equal rights for all!
    das ist dein gutes \Recht that is your right
    mit welchem \Recht hat sie das getan? by what right did she do that?
    ich nehme mir das \Recht, das zu tun I shall make so bold as to do that
    ▪ jds \Recht auf jdn/etw sb's right to sb/sth
    \Recht auf Ablehnung eines Richters right of rejection
    das \Recht auf einen Anwalt/auf Verweigerung der Aussage the right to a lawyer/to remain silent
    das \Recht auf Arbeit the right to work
    \Recht auf Entnahme FIN right of withdrawal
    \Recht auf [rechtliches] Gehör right to be heard [or of audience [in court]]
    \Recht auf ungestörte Nutzung right of quiet enjoyment
    \Rechte und Pflichten laws and duties
    \Recht auf Prüfung der Bücher FIN right to inspect the books
    abgeleitetes \Recht derivative right
    dingliches \Recht right in rem, real right
    grundstücksgleiches \Recht full legal title to land
    subjektives \Recht [individual's] right
    subjektiv dingliches \Recht right ad [or in] rem
    wohl erworbenes \Recht vested right [or interest]
    ein \Recht ausüben/verlieren to exercise/forfeit a right
    ein \Recht begründen/genießen to establish/enjoy a right
    jds \Rechte beeinträchtigen/verletzen to encroach/to trespass upon sb's rights
    auf seinem \Recht beharren to stand on one's rights
    sein \Recht bekommen [o erhalten] [o (fam) kriegen] to get one's rights [or justice] [or one's dues]
    sein \Recht fordern [o verlangen] to demand one's rights
    der Körper verlangt sein \Recht the body demands its due
    der Körper verlangt sein Recht auf Schlaf the body demands its due [or rightful] sleep
    seine \Rechte geltend machen to insist on one's rights
    ein \Recht auf etw haben to have a right to sth
    zu seinem \Recht kommen to get justice [or one's rights]; (fig) to be given due attention
    auf sein \Recht pochen [o bestehen] to insist on one's rights
    auf ein \Recht verzichten to relinquish a right
    alle \Rechte vorbehalten all rights reserved
    wohl erworbene \Rechte acquired [or vested] rights
    von \Rechts wegen legally, as of right; (eigentlich) by rights
    3. kein pl (Befugnis, Berechtigung) right
    was gibt Ihnen das \Recht,...? what gives you the right...?
    mit welchem \Recht? by what right?
    woher nimmst du das \Recht, das zu sagen? what gives you the right to say that?
    zu etw dat kein \Recht haben to have no right to sth
    jds gutes \Recht sein[, etw zu tun] to be sb's [legal] right [to do sth]
    das ist mein gutes \Recht it's my right
    es ist mein gutes \Recht, zu erfahren... I have every right to know...
    etw mit [gutem] \Recht tun to be [quite] right to do sth
    sich dat das \Recht vorbehalten, etw zu tun to reserve the right to do sth
    mit [o zu] \Recht rightly, with justification
    und das mit \Recht! and rightly so!
    du stellst mir die Frage ganz zu \Recht you are quite right to ask this question
    4. (das Richtige, Zustehende) right
    wo [o wenn] er \Recht hat, hat er \Recht when he's right, he's right
    [mit etw dat] \Recht behalten to be [proved] right [about sth]
    \Recht bekommen to win one's case
    jdm \Recht geben to admit that sb is right, to agree with sb
    \Recht haben to be [in the] right
    im \Recht sein to be in the right
    5. (veraltet: Rechtswissenschaft) jurisprudence
    Doktor der [o beider] \Rechte Doctor of Laws
    6.
    ▶ \Recht muss \Recht bleiben (Naturrecht) fair's fair; (Gesetz) the law is the law
    ▶ gleiche \Rechte, gleiche Pflichten (prov) equal rights, equal duties; s.a. Fug, Gnade
    * * *
    das; Recht[e]s, Rechte

    das Recht brechen/beugen — break/bend the law

    Recht sprechen — administer the law; administer justice

    von Rechts wegen — by law; (ugs.): (eigentlich) by rights

    2) (Rechtsanspruch) right

    alle Rechte vorbehalten — all rights reserved

    sein Recht fordern od. verlangen — demand one's rights

    zu seinem Recht kommen — (fig.) be given due attention

    3) o. Pl. (Berechtigung) right (auf + Akk. to)

    zu Recht — rightly; with justification

    4)

    jemandem Recht geben — concede or admit that somebody is right

    * * *
    A.
    1. adj (richtig) right;
    am rechten Ort in the right place;
    vom rechten Weg abkommen lose one’s way; fig go off the rails, stray from the straight and narrow;
    ich habe keinen rechten Appetit I don’t really feel like eating anything;
    ganz recht! quite right!, US absolutely!;
    so ist’s recht that’s right, that’s the stuff umg;
    es ist nicht recht, dass wenige alles haben it’s not right that everything is in the hands of a few;
    das ist nur recht und billig it’s only fair ( oder right and proper);
    das ist alles recht und schön, aber … that’s all very well, but …;
    alles was recht ist! fair’s fair; (das geht zu weit) you can go too far, there’s a limit;
    schon recht! all right, US umg alright;
    was dem einen recht ist, ist dem andern billig what’s sauce (US good) for the goose is sauce (US good) for the gander
    2. (passend, angebracht) right, proper, suitable;
    der rechte Augenblick the right ( oder a suitable) moment
    3. (gesetzmäßig) lawful, legitimate
    4. (wirklich) true, real;
    ein rechter Narr a right (US complete) fool
    5. (gut) good
    6. (akzeptabel) all right, US umg alright;
    mir ist’s recht I don’t mind, it’s all right (US umg alright) with me, (it) suits me;
    mir ist alles recht it’s all the same to me, I don’t mind either way;
    ihm ist jedes Mittel recht he’ll stop( stick umg) at nothing
    7. subst:
    nach dem Rechten sehen make sure everything’s all right (US umg alright);
    es war nichts Rechtes it wasn’t the real thing;
    nichts Rechtes gelernt haben have learnt (US learned) no proper trade;
    aus ihm kann ja nichts Rechtes werden he will never come to anything;
    nichts Rechtes mit jemandem/etwas anzufangen wissen not know what to do with sb/sth; → Recht, richtig, Ding 2, Licht, schlecht B
    B. adv
    1. (richtig) properly;
    recht daran tun zu (+inf) do right to (+inf)
    es geschieht ihr recht it serves her right;
    sie will es allen recht machen she wants to please everybody;
    man kann es nicht allen recht machen you can’t please everyone ( oder all the people all of the time);
    dir kann man auch nichts recht machen one can’t do anything right for you, everything I do is wrong (for you);
    ich weiß nicht recht I’m not sure, I really don’t know;
    wenn ich es mir recht überlege when I think about it;
    ich werde nicht recht klug daraus I don’t quite know what to make of it;
    wenn ich Sie recht verstehe if I understand you right(ly);
    verstehen Sie mich recht! don’t get me wrong;
    ich seh wohl nicht recht! I must be seeing things;
    ich hör wohl nicht recht! I can’t believe what you’re saying, say that again; (das kann nicht dein Ernst sein) you can’t be serious;
    du kommst mir gerade recht just the person I want; iron you’re the last person I wanted (to see)
    2. (sehr) very; (ziemlich) rather, besonders US somewhat, pretty umg;
    recht enttäuscht rather disappointed;
    recht geschickt rather ( oder very) clever, US umg pretty smart;
    recht gut pretty good ( oder well);
    es gefällt mir recht gut I rather ( stärker: really) like it, US auch I like it a lot;
    erst recht all the more (so)
    3. fig, in Wendungen:
    recht haben be right;
    er muss immer recht haben he always has to be right, he always insists he’s right;
    jemandem recht geben concede ( widerwillig: admit) that sb is right;
    da muss ich Ihnen recht geben I have to agree with you there;
    er hat (wieder) recht behalten he was proved (to be) right (again)
    …recht n im subst
    1. (Recht auf etwas):
    Anwesenheitsrecht right to be present;
    Aufenthaltsrecht right of residence;
    Einspruchsrecht right to object ( oder to protest);
    Elternrecht parental right
    2. Rechtsnorm: law
    recht… adj
    1. (Ggs link) right;
    rechte Hand right hand; fig auch right-hand man;
    rechter Hand (rechts) on the right; → Rechte1
    2. POL right-wing, rightist
    3. MATH:
    rechter Winkel right angle
    * * *
    das; Recht[e]s, Rechte

    das Recht brechen/beugen — break/bend the law

    Recht sprechen — administer the law; administer justice

    von Rechts wegen — by law; (ugs.): (eigentlich) by rights

    sein Recht fordern od. verlangen — demand one's rights

    zu seinem Recht kommen — (fig.) be given due attention

    3) o. Pl. (Berechtigung) right (auf + Akk. to)

    zu Recht — rightly; with justification

    4)

    jemandem Recht geben — concede or admit that somebody is right

    * * *
    -e m.
    due n. -e n.
    claim n.
    justice n.
    law n.
    privilege n.
    right n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > recht

  • 17 comisión

    f.
    1 commission, committee, delegacy, delegation.
    2 commission, royalty, mark-up, markup.
    3 commission, assignment, mandate, mission.
    4 committing, perpetration.
    * * *
    1 (retribución) commission
    2 (comité) committee
    3 (encargo) assignment, commission
    4 DERECHO perpetration, committing
    \
    a comisión / con comisión on a commission basis
    cobrar una comisión por algo to get a commission on something
    comisión bancaria service charge, bank commission
    comisión permanente standing committee
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=encargo) assignment, task, commission frm; (=misión) mission, assignment
    2) (Pol) commission; (=junta) committee

    comisión investigadora — investigating committee, board of enquiry, board of inquiry (EEUU)

    3) (Econ) board
    4) (Com) (=pago) commission
    5) (=ejecución) commission; [de ultraje] perpetration
    6)

    comisión de servicio(s) — (=destino provisional) secondment, temporary transfer; (=permiso de ausencia) leave of absence

    * * *
    1) (delegación, organismo) committee
    2) (Com) commission

    cobra un 20% de comisión — she gets 20% commission

    3) ( misión) assignment
    * * *
    = commission, panel, board, commission.
    Ex. Amongst these are numbered: some specific legal and governmental works, such as laws, decrees, treaties; works that record the collective thought of a body, for example, reports of commissions and committees; and various cartographic materials.
    Ex. The books were chosen by panels of children.
    Ex. The librarian is also a member of the board of Education Studies and Humanities, indeed the university librarian served as Dean of the School for a period of three years.
    Ex. Increased hotel reservations helps to bolster travel agents' bottom lines as airline fare wars have meant lower commissions.
    ----
    * adscripción en comisión de servicios = secondment.
    * cobrar comisión = charge + commission.
    * comisión bancaria = bank charge, bank commission, bank fee.
    * comisión de biblioteca = library board, library committee.
    * comisión de evaluación = review panel, review board.
    * comisión de investigación = commission of enquiry, investigating committee, investigation committee.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comisión de supervisión = review board.
    * comisión especial = ad hoc committee.
    * Comisión Europea, la = European Commission, the.
    * Comisión Europea para la Preservación y el Acceso (ECPA) = European Commission on Preservation and Access (ECPA).
    * Comisión Federal de Comercio = Federal Trade Commission.
    * comisión investigadora = fact-finding mission, commission of enquiry, investigating committee, investigation committee.
    * comisión permanente = standing commission.
    * conceder comisión de servicios = second.
    * en comisión de servicios = seconded.
    * informe de una comisión = committee paper.
    * miembro de una comisión = commissioner.
    * * *
    1) (delegación, organismo) committee
    2) (Com) commission

    cobra un 20% de comisión — she gets 20% commission

    3) ( misión) assignment
    * * *
    = commission, panel, board, commission.

    Ex: Amongst these are numbered: some specific legal and governmental works, such as laws, decrees, treaties; works that record the collective thought of a body, for example, reports of commissions and committees; and various cartographic materials.

    Ex: The books were chosen by panels of children.
    Ex: The librarian is also a member of the board of Education Studies and Humanities, indeed the university librarian served as Dean of the School for a period of three years.
    Ex: Increased hotel reservations helps to bolster travel agents' bottom lines as airline fare wars have meant lower commissions.
    * adscripción en comisión de servicios = secondment.
    * cobrar comisión = charge + commission.
    * comisión bancaria = bank charge, bank commission, bank fee.
    * comisión de biblioteca = library board, library committee.
    * comisión de evaluación = review panel, review board.
    * comisión de investigación = commission of enquiry, investigating committee, investigation committee.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comisión de supervisión = review board.
    * comisión especial = ad hoc committee.
    * Comisión Europea, la = European Commission, the.
    * Comisión Europea para la Preservación y el Acceso (ECPA) = European Commission on Preservation and Access (ECPA).
    * Comisión Federal de Comercio = Federal Trade Commission.
    * comisión investigadora = fact-finding mission, commission of enquiry, investigating committee, investigation committee.
    * comisión permanente = standing commission.
    * conceder comisión de servicios = second.
    * en comisión de servicios = seconded.
    * informe de una comisión = committee paper.
    * miembro de una comisión = commissioner.

    * * *
    A (delegación, organismo) committee
    comisión gubernamental government commission
    Compuestos:
    regulatory commission
    commission on human rights, human rights commission
    investigating o investigation committee, commission of inquiry
    European Commission
    congressional committee
    parliamentary committee
    appointments committee
    budgetary commission o committee
    review committee
    secondment
    securities commission
    European Commission
    joint committee
    negotiating committee
    organizing committee
    standing committee
    B ( Com) commission
    trabajar a comisión to work on a commission basis
    cobra un 20% de comisión sobre las ventas she gets 20% commission on her sales
    mercancía en comisión goods on commission
    C (misión) assignment
    en comisión on assignment
    Compuestos:
    ( Esp) secondment
    ( Der) request
    D ( frml) (de un delito) perpetration ( frml), commission ( frml)
    * * *

     

    comisión sustantivo femenino
    a) (delegación, organismo) committee;


    b) (Com) commission;


    comisión sustantivo femenino
    1 Com (de un comerciante) commission: trabaja a comisión, he works on a commission basis
    2 (comité) committee
    ' comisión' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    CNMV
    - estatuir
    - arzobispal
    - CE
    - componente
    - constituir
    - crear
    - ejecutivo
    - investigación
    - junta
    English:
    charge
    - commission
    - committee
    - form
    - FTC
    - mission
    - panel
    - service charge
    - watchdog committee
    - ad hoc
    - aid
    - commissioner
    - co-opt
    - discretion
    - European
    - executive
    - on
    - under-
    * * *
    1. [delegación] committee, commission;
    UE
    la Comisión (Europea o [m5] de las Comunidades Europeas) the (European) Commission
    comisión de control monitoring committee;
    comisión disciplinaria disciplinary committee;
    comisión ejecutiva executive committee;
    comisión de investigación committee of inquiry;
    comisión investigadora committee of inquiry;
    comisión mixta joint committee;
    Comisiones Obreras = Spanish left-wing trade union;
    comisión parlamentaria parliamentary committee;
    comisión permanente standing committee;
    comisión rogatoria rogatory commission
    2. Com commission;
    (trabajar) a comisión (to work) on a commission basis;
    recibe o [m5] se lleva una comisión del 5 por ciento she gets 5 percent commission
    comisión bancaria bank charges; Econ comisión fija flat fee;
    comisión de gestión administration fee
    3. [de un delito] perpetration
    4. [encargo] assignment
    comisión de servicio(s):
    trabajó dos años de profesora, en comisión de servicio(s) she was seconded to the institute for two years
    * * *
    f
    1 committee; de gobierno commission;
    comisión parlamentaria parliamentary committee
    2 ( recompensa) commission;
    trabajar a comisión work on commission
    * * *
    comisión nf, pl - siones
    1) : commission, committing
    2) : committee
    3) : percentage, commission
    comisión sobre las ventas: sales commission
    * * *
    1. (dinero) commission
    2. (comité) committee

    Spanish-English dictionary > comisión

  • 18 местен

    (за място, област) local
    (за страна) native, home (attr.)
    мед. topical
    местен колорит local colour
    местни обичаи native customs; localisms
    местен патриотизъм regionalism, localism
    местен тим сп. a home team
    местно (само)управление local/municipal administration/government
    местна упойка a local anaesthetic
    местни закони/разпореждания bylaws
    местен падеж грам. a locative case
    местен лекар a resident physician
    местен говор vernacular; patois
    местен предмет картогр. feature
    местен влак an omnibus train
    * * *
    мѐстен,
    прил., -на, -но, -ни (за място, област) local; (за страна) native, home (attr.); (за жител) native(-born); мед. topical; \местенен говор vernacular; dialect; \местенен колорит local colour; \местенен лекар a resident physician; \местенен орган на властта local authority; \местенен падеж език. a locative case; \местенен патриотизъм regionalism, localism; \местенен предмет геогр. feature; \местенен тим спорт. a home team; \местенна промишленост a home industry; \местенна упойка мед. a local anaesthetic; \местенни закони/разпореждания by-laws; \местенно название place-name.
    * * *
    domestic; home (за стоки); indigenous; local: a местен anaesthetic - местна упойка; native: местен customs - местни обичаи; provincial; regional; resident; vernacular (говор)
    * * *
    1. (за жител) native (-born) 2. (за място, област) local 3. (за страна) native, home (attr.) 4. МЕСТЕН влак an omnibus train 5. МЕСТЕН говор vernacular;patois 6. МЕСТЕН колорит local colour 7. МЕСТЕН лекар a resident physician 8. МЕСТЕН падеж грам. a locative case 9. МЕСТЕН патриотизъм regionalism, localism 10. МЕСТЕН предмет картогр. feature 11. МЕСТЕН тим сп. a home team 12. мед. topical 13. местна порода а native breed 14. местна промишленост a home industry 15. местна упойка a local anaesthetic 16. местни закони/разпореждания bylaws 17. местни обичаи native customs;localisms 18. местно (само)управление local/municipal administration/government 19. местно название place-name 20. местно производство home production 21. местно растение native

    Български-английски речник > местен

  • 19 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 20 Doktor

    Doktor m (Dr.) 1. GEN, SOZ Doctor, Dr.; 2. PERS doctor, medical doctor, physician (Arzt)
    * * *
    m (Dr.) 1. <Geschäft, Sozial> Doctor (Dr.) ; 2. < Person> (Arzt) doctor, medical doctor, physician
    * * *
    Doktor
    (Arzt) doctor, physician, general practitioner;
    • Doktor der Betriebswissenschaft master of science in business administration degree;
    • Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften Doctor of Engineering Science;
    • Doktor der Rechte Doctor of Laws;
    • Doktor der Volkswirtschaft [etwa] economics graduate;
    • zum Doktor promoviert werden to obtain a doctor's degree;
    • mit Doktorabschluss post-doctoral standard;
    • Doktortitel doctorate, doctorship.

    Business german-english dictionary > Doktor

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