1913-1947

νέες χώρες οι

новые области (Эпир, Македония и острова Эгейского моря, присоединенные к Греции в 1913 году). Митрополии этих областей находятся сейчас в юрисдикции Автокефальной Элладской Церкви, а до присоединения к Греции принадлежали Вселенской Патриархии. Епархии на Крите подчиняются как Вселенскому Патриархату, так и Автокефальной Элладской Церкви. Додеканесские острова, присоединившиеся к Греции в 1947 году, подчиняются непосредственно Вселенскому Патриархату

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William G. Morgan (1870-1942), who was born in the State of New York, has gone down in history as the inventor of the game of volleyball, to which he originally gave the name "Mintonette".

The young Morgan carried out his undergraduate studies at the Springfield College of the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) where he met James Naismith who, in 1891, had invented basketball. After graduating, Morgan spent his first year at the Auburn (Maine) YMCA after which, during the summer of 1896, he moved to the YMCA at Holyoke (Massachusetts) where he became Director of Physical Education. In this role he had the opportunity to establish, develop, and direct a vast programme of exercises and sports classes for male adults.

His leadership was enthusiastically accepted, and his classes grew in numbers. He came to realise that he needed a certain type of competitive recreational game in order to vary his programme. Basketball, which sport was beginning to develop, seemed to suit young people, but it was necessary to find a less violent and less intense alternative for the older members.

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The sport originated in the United States, and is now just achieving the type of popularity in the U.S. that it has received on a global basis, where it ranks behind only soccer among participation sports.

Today there are more than 46 million Americans who play volleyball. There are 800 million players worldwide who play Volleyball at least once a week.

In 1895, William G. Morgan, an instructor at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Holyoke, Mass., decided to blend elements of basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball to create a game for his classes of businessmen which would demand less physical contact than basketball. He created the game of Volleyball (at that time called mintonette). Morgan borrowed the net from tennis, and raised it 6 feet 6 inches above the floor, just above the average man's head.

During a demonstration game, someone remarked to Morgan that the players seemed to be volleying the ball back and forth over the net, and perhaps "volleyball" would be a more descriptive name for the sport.

On July 7, 1896 at Springfield College the first game of "volleyball" was played.

In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.

1900 - YMCA spread volleyball to Canada, the Orient, and the Southern Hemisphere.

1905 - YMCA spread volleyball to Cuba

1907 Volleyball was presented at the Playground of America convention as one of the most popular sports

1909 - YMCA spread volleyball to Puerto Rico

1912 - YMCA spread volleyball to Uruguay

1913 - Volleyball competition held in Far Eastern Games

1917 - YMCA spread volleyball to Brazil

In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced. The Filipinos developed the "bomba" or kill, and called the hitter a "bomberino".

1916 - The NCAA was invited by the YMCA to aid in editing the rules and in promoting the sport. Volleyball was added to school and college physical education and intramural programs.

In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.

1919 American Expeditionary Forces distributed 16,000 volleyballs to it's troops and allies. This provided a stimulus for the growth of volleyball in foreign lands.

In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted.

In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams from 11 states were represented.

In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.

1930's Recreational sports programs became an important part of American life

In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.

In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees.

In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S.

Late 1940s Forearm pass introduced to the game (as a desperation play) Most balls played with overhand pass

1946 A study of recreation in the United States showed that volleyball ranked fifth among team sports being promoted and organized

In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded in Paris.

In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.

In 1949, the first World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

1949 USVBA added a collegiate division, for competitive college teams. For the first ten years collegiate competition was sparse. Teams formed only through the efforts of interested students and instructors. Many teams dissolved when the interested individuals left the college. Competitive teams were scattered, with no collegiate governing bodies providing leadership in the sport.

1951 - Volleyball was played by over 50 million people each year in over 60 countries

1955 - Pan American Games included volleyball

1957 - The International Olympic Committee (IOC) designated volleyball as an Olympic team sport, to be included in the 1964 Olympic Games.

1959 - International University Sports Federation (FISU) held the first University Games in Turin, Italy. Volleyball was one of the eight competitions held.

1960 Seven midwestern institutions formed the Midwest Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (MIVA)

1964Southern California Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (SCVIA) was formed in California

1960's new techniques added to the game included - the soft spike (dink), forearm pass (bump), blocking across the net, and defensive diving and rolling.

In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.

The Japanese volleyball used in the 1964 Olympics, consisted of a rubber carcass with leather panelling. A similarly constructed ball is used in most modern competition.

In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.

1968 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) made volleyball their fifteenth competitive sport.

1969 The Executive Committee of the NCAA proposed addition of volleyball to its program.

In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan.

In 1975, the US National Women's team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in 1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).

In 1977, the US National Men's team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).

In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.

In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the Gold, and the Women the Silver.

In 1986, the Women's Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.

In 1987, the FIVB added a Beach Volleyball World Championship Series.

In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.

In 1989, the FIVB Sports Aid Program was created.

In 1990, the World League was created.

In 1992, the Four Person Pro Beach League was started in the United States.

In 1994, Volleyball World Wide, created.

In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball was added to the Olympics

There is a good book, "Volleyball Centennial: The First 100 Years", available on the history of the sport.

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['volibo:l] n. voleiboll; volleyball player voleibollist

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● HISTORIA E VOLIBOLLIT

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● Villiam G. Morgan instruktor dhe drejtues i sportit në YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) në Holyoke në vitin 1895 shpiku lojën e volejbollit. Ai duke u bazuar në karakteristikat e disa lojërave sportive si: basketbollit, tenisit bejsbollit dhe hendbollit vendos te bëj një lojë të re me emrin mintonette. William Morgan vendosi që t'i bashkoj disa nga elementet teknike të lojërave të lartëpërmendura dhe kështu ai shpik një lojë të re për biznismenët që i ushtronte, lojë e cila do të kishte më pak kontakt fizik në mes të lojëtarëvë të dy skuadrave që loznin këtë lojë të re sportive. Atij basketbolli i dukej një lojë sportive shumë e ashpër. Morgan huazon rrjeten nga tenisi dhe ate e ngrit në një lartësi pak mbi kokën e një njeriu mesatar.

● Kur Morgani demonstronte këtë lojë të re dikush nga të pranishmit vërejti se topi kalohet nga njëra anë e rrjetës në ate tjetrën pa rënë në tokë dhe pa u hamendë tha se kjo lojë duhet që patjeter të quhet volejboll. Ky emër më së shumti i ngjanë përshkrimit të lojës së posashpikur dhe për ketë shkak ajo mëtutje e ruan emërtimin VOLEJBOLL.

● Më 7 korik të vitit 1896 u luajt loja e pare e volejbollit në Kolexhin Springfild.

● Në viiin 1900 dizajnohet topi i parë special për volejboll. Në të njejtën kohë YMCA promovon volejbollin në Kanada, Orient (shtetet e Lindjes; hemisfera lindore) dhe hemisferën Jugore.

Në vitin 1905 YMCA përhap volejbollin në Kubë".

Në vitin 1907 në konventën e shoqatave sporave Amerikane volejboili prezentohet si një ndër sportet më të popullarizuara në Amerikë.

● Në vitin 1909 YMCA prezenton volejbollin në Porto Riko, kurse më 1912 në Uruguaj dhe më 1912 në Brazil.

● Në vitin 1913 volejbolli futet në programën e Lojërave Aziatike.

● Në vitin 1916 në Filipne për herë të parë fillon të apikohet një stil ofensif i kesaj loje. Pranimi i shërbimit bëhet me një trajektore të lartë me qëllim që ndonjëri nga sulmuesit ta gjuan dhe t'a dergoi ate nga ana e tjetër e rrjetës. Këtë mënyrë e gjuajtjes Filipinasit e quajtën "Bomberino"- bombë ose gjuajtje vrasëse.

● Në vitin 1917 ndryshon numri i pikeve me të cilat fitohet një set edhe ate prej 21 në l5.

● Në vitin 1917 volejbolli fillon të përhapet në kontinentin e Afrikës dhe Europës. Në Europe kjo lojë sportive sëpari përhapet në France. Gjatë Luftave Ballkanike ky sport përhapet edhe në vendet e Ballkanit nga ushtarët francez, së pari në Strumicë të Maqedonisë dhe më pastaj në shtetet tjera të Europës.

● Në vitin 1919 forcat Amerikane u distribuojnë 16.000 topa volejboili trupave të tyre dhe atyre aleate. Kjo gjë ndikoi që volejboili të stimulohet dhe të përhapet edhe më gjerë dhe më shpejt.

● Në vitin 1920 vendoset që në një anë të fushës të ketë vetëm tre kontakte me topin.

● Në vitin 1922 në Brooklyn të shtetit New York mbahet Kampionati i Parë Kombëtar Amerikan ku morrin pjesë 27 skuadra nga 11 shtete të SHBA-së.

● Në vitin 1928 themelohet Lidhja Volejbollistikë e Shtëteve të Bashkuara të Amerikës e cila sot mban emrin USA Vollejball.

● Në të njejtin vit d.m.th. më 1928 bëhet përpjekja e parë që të themelohet Federata botërore e Volejbollit (FIVB), por pa sukses.

● Në vitin 1930 organizohet loja e pare në volejboll të plazhit (Beach volleyball) me nga dy lojtarë (meshkuj).

● Në vitin 1934 bëhet miratimi i gjyqtarëve nacional Amerikan të volejbollit

● Në vitin 1934 në Stokholm të Suedisë bëhet përpjekja e dytë për të themeluar Federatën Botërore të Volejbollit, por edhe kësaj here pa sukses, pasi nuk mundën të unifikohen rregullat e volejbollit në tërë botën.

● Në vitin 1940 për herë të parë promovohet pranimi i topit nga shërbimi me llëra

(parakrah). Gjer në këtë kohë topi pranohej me gishtërinjë.

● Në vitin 1946 në Pragë të Çekisë konstituohet komisioni i FTVB-së dhe më 1947 në Paris të Francës u organizua Kongresi i Parë i FTVB-së me pjesëmarjen e 14 shteteve të Botës.

● Në vitin 1949 mbahet Kampionati i Parë Botërorë në Volejboll në Pragë të Çekisë.

● Në vitin 1957 Komiteti Botërorë Olimpik vendosë që volejbolli të futet në programën e Lojërave Olimpike si sport ekipor në Lojërat olimpike që do të mbahen në vitin 1964 në Tokio të Japonisë.

● Në vitin 1959 Federata Internacionale Sportive Universitare FISU në Turin të Italisë orgaiuzon lojërat e para Sportive Universitare dhe këtu volejbolli ishte njëri nga tetë sportet garuese.

● Në vitin 1960 futen elementë teknik të rinjë në lojën e volejbollit si: ngecja (sulmi me dredhi), pranimi i topit me llëra (bump), bllokimi i sulmit mbi rrjetë dhe plonzhoni.

● Në vitin 1964 volejbolli bën pjesë në Lojërat Olimpike të Tokios në Japoni.

● Në vitm 1974 për herë të parë volejbolli transmetohet nëpërmjet televizionit. Nga Meksika transmetohet gjallë një ndeshje për shikuesit Japonez.

● Në vitin 1983 themelohet Asociaciom i Profesionalistëve Amerikan të Volejbollit për meshkuj, kurse në vitin 1986 ai i femrave.

● Viti 1987 korespondon me organizimin e Kampionatit të Parë Botërorë në Volejboll të Plazhit (Beach Volleyball).

● Në vitin 1990 themelohet Liga Botërore e Volejbollit.

● Në vitin 1995 është viti jubilar i 100 vjetorit të ekzistimit të volejbollit dhe tani ka më tepër se 800.000.000 lojtarë që lozin së paku një here në javë volejboll.

● Në vitin 1996 volejbolli i plazhit (dy lojtarë) bëhet sport olimpik ekipor.

1885-1981

   Allan Dwan, canadiense de nacimiento, es uno de los grandes veteranos de Hollywood. En activo como director desde 1911, realizo una enorme cantidad de cortos hasta que, en 1913, se paso a las historias largas, alguna tan magnifica como su version de Robin de los bosques (Robin Hood, 1922), con el atletico Douglas Fairbanks como protagonista. No perdio su buen pulso narrativo con la llegada del sonoro, y hasta que ceso su actividad, en 1961, estuvo dirigiendo filmes con regularidad, demostrando casi siempre su buen hacer. Por alguna razon, probablemente inconfesable, siento especial predileccion por Ligeramente escarlata (Slightly Scarlet, 1956), que podria haber sido una magnifica muestra de cine negro o emparentado con el, y por sus westerns tardios, desde Montana Belle en adelante, pero es probable que sus mejores filmes, aparte del citado Robin de los bosques, destacable por su dinamismo y por su sentido del humor, tal vez algo ingenuo, sean Suez (Suez, 1938) y Arenas sangrientas (Sands of Iwo Jima, 1949).

   FILMOGRAFIA

    Frontier Marshal. 1939. 71 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Fox. Randolph Scott, Nancy Kelly, Cesar Romero.

    Trail of the Vigilantes (La senda de los heroes). 1940. 75 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Universal. Franchot Tone, Broderick Crawford, Peggy Moran, Andy Devine.

    Northwest Outpost. 1947. 91 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Nelson Eddy, Ilona Massey, Joseph Schildkraut.

    Angel in Exile (co-d.: Philip Ford). 1948. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Carroll, Adele Mara, Thomas Gomez.

    Surrender. 1950. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Vera Ralston, John Caroll, Walter Brennan.

    Belle le Grand. 1951. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. Ver Ralston, John Carroll, Hope Emerson.

    Montana Belle. 1952. 82 minutos. Trucolor. RKO. Jane Russell, George Brent, Scott Brady, Forrest Tucker.

    The Woman They Almost Lynched. 1953. 90 minutos. Blanco y Negro. Republic. John Lund, Brian Donlevy, Audrey Totter, Joan Leslie.

    Silver Lode (Filon de plata). 1954. 81 minutos. Technicolor. RKO. John Payne, Lizabeth Scott, Dan Duryea, Dolores Moran.

    Passion. 1954. 84 minutos. Technicolor. RKO. Cornel Wilde, Yvonne De Carlo, Raymond Burr.

    Cattle Queen of Montana (La reina de Montana). 1954. 88 minutos. Technicolor. RKO. Barbara Stanwyvk, Ronald Reagan, Gene Evans.

    Tennessee’s Partner (El jugador). 1955. 87 minutos. Technicolor. Superscope. RKO. John Payne, Ronald Reagan, Rhonda Fleming, Coleen Gray.

    The Restless Breed. 1957. 86 minutos. Eastmancolor. Fox. Scott Brady, Ann Bancroft, Jay C. Flippen.

(Barreirinhas)

(1913-2005)

   Leader of the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), author, and ideologue. Álvaro Cunhai was a militant of the PCP since the 1930s and was secretary-general from 1961 to 1992. In the midst of Mikail Gorbachev's reforms and perestroika, Cunha refused to alter the PCP's orthodox commitment to the proletariat and Marxism-Leninism. Throughout a long career of participation in the PCP, Cunhal regularly held influential positions in the organization. In 1931, he joined the PCP while a law student in Lisbon and became secretary-general of the Portuguese Communist Youth/Juventude Comunista (JC) in 1935, which included membership in the PCP's central committee. He advanced to the PCP's secretariat in 1942, after playing a leading role in the reorganization of 1940-H that gave the party its present orthodox character. Cunhai dubbed himself "the adopted son of the proletariat" at the 1950 trial that sentenced him to 11 years in prison for communist activity. Because his father was a lawyer-painter-writer and Cunhai received a master's degree in law, his origins were neither peasant nor worker but petit-bourgeois. During his lifetime, he spent 13 years in prison, eight of which were in solitary confinement. On 3 January 1960, he and nine other mostly communist prisoners escaped from Peniche prison and fled the country. The party's main theoretician, Cunhal was elected secretary-general in 1961 and, along with other top leaders, directed the party from abroad while in exile.

   In the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 that terminated the Estado Novo and ushered in democracy, Cunhal ended his exile and returned to Portugal. He played important roles in post-1974 political events ranging from leader of the communist offensive during the "hot summer" of 1975, positions of minister-without-portfolio in the first through fifth provisional governments, to his membership in parliament beginning in 1976.

   At the PCP's 14th Congress (1992), Carlos Carvalhas was elected secretary-general to replace Cunhal. Whatever official or unofficial position Cunhal held, however, automatically became an important position within the party. After stepping down as secretary-general, he was elected to head the party's National Council (eliminated in 1996). Many political observers have argued that Cunhal purposely picked a successor who could not outshine him, and it is true that Carvalhas does not have Cunhal's humanistic knowledge, lacks emotion, and is not as eloquent. Cunhai was known not only as a dynamic orator but also as an artist, novelist, and brilliant political tactician. He wrote under several pseudonyms, including Manuel Tiago, who published the well-known Até Amanhã, Camaradas, as well as the novel recently adapted for the film, Cinco Dias, Cinco Noites. Under his own name, he published as well a book on art theory entitled A Arte, O Artista E A Sociedade. He also published volumes of speeches and essays.

   Although he was among the most orthodox leaders of the major Western European Communist parties, Cunhal was not a puppet of the Soviet Union, as many claimed. He was not only a major leader at home, but also in the international communist movement. His orthodoxy was especially useful to the Soviets in their struggle to maintain cohesion in a movement threatened by division from the Eurocommunists in the 1970s. To conclude that Cunhal was a Soviet puppet is to ignore his independent decisions during the Revolution of 25 April 1974. At that time, the Soviets reportedly tried to slow

   Cunhal's revolutionary drive because it ran counter to detente and other Soviet strategies.

   In many ways Cunhal's views were locked in the past. His perception and analyses of modern Portuguese revolutionary conditions did not alter radically from his experiences and analyses of revolutionary conditions in the 1940s. To Cunhal, although some conditions had changed, requiring tactical shifts, the major conflict was the same one that led to the creation of the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1947. The world was still divided into two camps: American and Western imperialism on one side, and socialism, with its goal to achieve the fullest of democracies, on the other. Cunhal continued to believe that Marxism-Leninism and scientific socialism provide the solutions to resolving the problems of the world until his death in 2005.

   1) Les Misérables¹, 1913, Альбер Капеллани

   2) Les Misérables², 1925, Анри Фекур

   3) Les Misérables³, 1933, Реймон Бернар

   4) I Miserabili, 1947, Риккардо Фреда

SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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Interested from childhood in anything mechanical, as a teenager Armstrong constructed a variety of wireless equipment in the attic of his parents' home, including spark-gap transmitters and receivers with iron-filing "coherer" detectors capable of producing weak Morse-code signals. In 1912, while still a student of engineering at Columbia University, he applied positive, i.e. regenerative, feedback to a Lee De Forest triode amplifier to just below the point of oscillation and obtained a gain of some 1,000 times, giving a receiver sensitivity very much greater than hitherto possible. Furthermore, by allowing the circuit to go into full oscillation he found he could generate stable continuous-waves, making possible the first reliable CW radio transmitter. Sadly, his claim to priority with this invention, for which he filed US patents in 1913, the year he graduated from Columbia, led to many years of litigation with De Forest, to whom the US Supreme Court finally, but unjustly, awarded the patent in 1934. The engineering world clearly did not agree with this decision, for the Institution of Radio Engineers did not revoke its previous award of a gold medal and he subsequently received the highest US scientific award, the Franklin Medal, for this discovery.

During the First World War, after some time as an instructor at Columbia University, he joined the US Signal Corps laboratories in Paris, where in 1918 he invented the superheterodyne, a major contribution to radio-receiver design and for which he filed a patent in 1920. The principle of this circuit, which underlies virtually all modern radio, TV and radar reception, is that by using a local oscillator to convert, or "heterodyne", a wanted signal to a lower, fixed, "intermediate" frequency it is possible to obtain high amplification and selectivity without the need to "track" the tuning of numerous variable circuits.

Returning to Columbia after the war and eventually becoming Professor of Electrical Engineering, he made a fortune from the sale of his patent rights and used part of his wealth to fund his own research into further problems in radio communication, particularly that of receiver noise. In 1933 he filed four patents covering the use of wide-band frequency modulation (FM) to achieve low-noise, high-fidelity sound broadcasting, but unable to interest RCA he eventually built a complete broadcast transmitter at his own expense in 1939 to prove the advantages of his system. Unfortunately, there followed another long battle to protect and exploit his patents, and exhausted and virtually ruined he took his own life in 1954, just as the use of FM became an established technique.

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SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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As a Jewish boy in Russia, Sarnoff spent several years preparing to be a Talmudic Scholar, but in 1900 the family emigrated to the USA and settled in Albany, New York. While at public school and at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, New York, he helped the family finances by running errands, selling newspapers and singing the liturgy in the synagogue. After a short period as a messenger boy with the Commercial Cable Company, in 1906 he became an office boy with the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America (see G. Marconi). Having bought a telegraph instrument with his first earnings, he taught himself Morse code and was made a junior telegraph operator in 1907. The following year he became a wireless operator at Nantucket Island, then in 1909 he became Manager of the Marconi station at Sea Gate, New York. After two years at sea he returned to a shore job as wireless operator at the world's most powerful station at Wanamaker's store in Manhattan. There, on 14 April 1912, he picked up the distress signals from the sinking iner Titanic, remaining at his post for three days.

Rewarded by rapid promotion (Chief Radio Inspector 1913, Contract Manager 1914, Assistant Traffic Manager 1915, Commercial Manager 1917) he proposed the introduction of commercial radio broadcasting, but this received little response. Consequently, in 1919 he took the job of Commercial Manager of the newly formed Radio Corporation of America (RCA), becoming General Manager in 1921, Vice- President in 1922, Executive Vice-President in 1929 and President in 1930. In 1921 he was responsible for the broadcasting of the Dempsey-Carpentier title-fight, as a result of which RCA sold $80 million worth of radio receivers in the following three years. In 1926 he formed the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Rightly anticipating the development of television, in 1928 he inaugurated an experimental NBC television station and in 1939 demonstrated television at the New York World Fair. Because of his involvement with the provision of radio equipment for the armed services, he was made a lieutenant-colonel in the US Signal Corps Reserves in 1924, a full colonel in 1931 and, while serving as a communications consultant to General Eisenhower during the Second World War, Brigadier General in 1944.

With the end of the war, RCA became a major manufacturer of television receivers and then invested greatly in the ultimately successful development of shadowmask tubes and receivers for colour television. Chairman and Chief Executive from 1934, Sarnoff held the former post until his retirement in 1970.

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See also: Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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After spending some years at his father's Castle Ironworks and at Ebbw Vale Works, Talbot travelled to the USA in 1890 to become Superintendent of the Southern Iron and Steel Company of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he initiated basic open-hearth steelmaking and a preliminary slag washing to remove silicon. In 1893 he moved to Pennsylvania as Steel Superintendent at the Pencoyd works; there, six years later, he began his "continuous" steelmaking process. Returning to Britain in 1900, Talbot marketed the technique: after ten years it was in successful use in Britain, continental Europe and the USA; it promoted the growth of steel production.

Meanwhile its originator had joined the Cargo Fleet Iron Company Limited on Teesside, where he was made Managing Director in 1907. Twelve years later he assumed, in addition, the same position in the allied South Durham Steel and Iron Company Limited. While remaining Managing Director, he was appointed Deputy Chairman of both companies in 1925, and Chairman in 1940. The companies he controlled survived the depressed 1920s and 1930s and were significant contributors to British steel output, with a capacity of more than half a million tonnes per year.

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Камю, Альбер (1913, Мондові, Алжир - 1960) - франц. філософ-екзистенціаліст, письменник, драматург. Отримав освіту і почав творчу діяльність в Алжирі. В роки Другої світової війни - учасник (разом із Сартром) франц. руху Опору, співр. і редактор газ. "Комба" ("Боротьба") - органу руху Опору; лауреат Нобелівської премії з літератури (1957). У перший період творчості (ЗО - 40-ві рр.) у загальній перспективі екзистенційного філософування К. розробляє ідеї т. зв. абсурду філософії. К. цікавиться не стільки змалюванням абсурду, скільки проблемою його подолання. Будь-які форми людської діяльності позбавлені раціонального змісту і тому є "рівноабсурдними" ("можна лікувати чуму, але можна й топити печі крематоріїв"), але рівноприйнятність альтернатив є такою лише з раціоналістичної точки зору. З позицій "життєвих" - екзистенційних, моральних - такі альтернативи зовсім не рівноцінні. Це дає підставу К. для висновку, що не все є абсурдним: дещо у світі "все ж має певний сенс, і це - людина... єдина істота, яка шукає цей сенс". Тим самим окреслюються певні спонуки, що дозволяють знайти твердий ґрунт для подолання абсурду, і формою такого подолання К. вважає "бунт". З цього висновку починається другий період творчості К. - період "бунту", що відкривається публікацією есе "Бунтівна людина" (1951), на сторінках якого К. робить спробу проаналізувати "бунтівну свідомість в Європі за останні два століття". К. різко протиставляє бунт і революцію. Остання, на його думку, лише замінює один порядок (раціональність) іншим, тому в ній обов'язково відбувається "переродження Прометея на Цезаря" (про це свідчить історичний приклад якобінців і більшовиків). Єдиний вихід - "бунт" як постійне тривання змін, творчості, свободи. Трагічна смерть К. перервала перехід до третього періоду творчості, що почав окреслюватись у повісті "Падіння" (1956).

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Осн. тв.: "Міф про Сизифа" (1942); "Листи до німецького друга" (1945); "Сторонній"; "Чума" (1947); "Бунтівна людина" (1951); "Роздуми над смертним вироком" (1960) та ін.

Рассел, Бертран (1872, Треллек, Уельс - 1970) - англ. філософ, логік, суспільний діяч, засновник сучасної філософії логічного аналізу. Автор (разом із Вайтгедом) класичної праці Principia Mathematica, в якій вперше був систематично реалізований аксіоматичний метод побудови логіки та математики. Лауреат Нобелівської премії з літератури (1950). Філософська еволюція Р. являє собою перехід від платонівського реалізму і логоцентризму до г'юмівського позитивізму і аристотелівського типу реалізму. На поч. XX ст. разом із Муром Р. виступив із критикою неогегельянства з позицій реалізму. В подальшому неодноразово змінював свої філософські погляди, залишаючись, однак, послідовним прибічником аналітичного методу. За Р., сутність філософського пізнання полягає не в проясненні філософської термінології, а в систематичному розумінні навколишнього світу. Логічний аналіз може сприяти філософському пізнанню тільки тоді, коли він спирається на науково обґрунтовану онтологію, з якою мусять бути узгоджені мовні засоби аналізу. Звідси виникає проблема побудови "логічно досконалої мови". Згідно з теорією дескрипцій Р., для цього треба переформулювати твердження природної мови таким чином, щоб усунути посилання на сумнівні сутності, уникаючи як суперечливих дескрипцій типу "круглий квадрат", так і фіктивних дескрипцій ("Гамлет", "крилатий кінь" та ін.). Тоді вимога істинності судження буде еквівалентною вимозі відповідності судження дійсності. Таке бачення взаємовідносин між логікою та онтологією базується на припущенні про дискретну "атомарну" структуру світу (доктрина логічного атомізму). Згідно з концепцією цього періоду, атомарні онтологічні факти утворюються з властивостей та відношень індивідів, а пропозиції та пропозиційні функції лише виконують роль мовних виразів. У 1940 р. Р. знову переосмислює свою онтологію. Єдиними базовими елементами світу він вважає прості якості, що мають водночас характер індивідів і універсал ій, доступних для прямого сприйняття ("знання через безпосереднє знайомство"). Як фізичні об'єкти, так і події аналізуються в термінах цих простих якостей. Доктрина "знання через безпосереднє знайомство" посідає центральне місце в епістемології Р. Згідно з цією доктриною, є два типи знань: знання речей і знання істин. Знання речей, у свою чергу, поділяється на два різновиди: безпосереднє і таке, що базується на знанні істин. Суспільно-політичні погляди Р. поєднували лібералізм, антифашизм і антикомунізм. У питанні про стосунки між людиною і державними інституціями Р. виходив із принципу поєднання максимуму свободи із мінімумом сили В. иступав за створення на демократичних засадах всесвітнього уряду, до повноважень якого входило б з'ясування міждержавних конфліктів.

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Осн. тв.: "Критичний розгляд філософії Ляйбніца" (1900); "Principia mathematica", у співавт. У 3 т. (1910 - 1913); "Наше пізнання зовнішнього світу" (1914); "Аналіз свідомості" (1921); "Аналіз матерії" (1927); "Освіта і соціальний лад" (1932); "Історія західної філософії" (1947); "Людське пізнання: його обсяг і межі" (1948); "Автобіографія Бертрана Рассела. 1872 - 1914". У 3 т. (1967).