(1826-1830)

сокр. от Moody and Malkin's Nisi Prius Reports

сокр. от Moody and Malkin's Nisi Prius Reports

сокр. от Younge and Jervis' Exchequer Reports

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

There are two claimants for the person who originated the differential gear as applied to roving frames: one is J.Green, a tinsmith of Mansfield, in his patent of 1823; the other is Arnold, who had applied it in America and patented it in early 1823. This latter was the source for Houldsworth's patent in 1826. It seems that Arnold's gearing was secretly communicated to Houldsworth by Charles Richmond, possibly when Houldsworth visited the United States in 1822–3, but more probably in 1825 when Richmond went to England. In return, Richmond received information about parts of a cylinder printing machine from Houldsworth. In the working of the roving frame, as the rovings were wound onto their bobbins and the diameter of the bobbins increased, the bobbin speed had to be reduced to keep the winding on at the same speed while the flyers and drawing rollers had to maintain their initial speed. Although this could be achieved by moving the driving belt along coned pulleys, this method did not provide enough power and slippage occurred. The differential gear combined the direct drive from the main shaft of the roving frame with that from the cone drive, so that only the latter provided the dif-ference between flyer and bobbin speeds, i.e. the winding speeds, thus taking away most of the power from that belt. Henry Houldsworth Senior (1774–1853) was living in Manchester when his son Henry was born, but by 1800 had moved to Glasgow. He built several mills, including a massive one at Anderston, Scotland, in which a Boulton \& Watt steam engine was installed. Henry Houldsworth Junior was probably back in Manchester by 1826, where he was to become an influential cotton spinner as chief partner in his mills, which he moved out to Reddish in 1863–5. He was also a prominent landowner in Cheetham. When William Fairbairn was considering establishing the Association for the Prevention of Steam Boiler Explosions in 1854, he wanted to find an influential manufacturer and mill-owner and he made a happy choice when he turned to Henry Houldsworth for assistance.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

[br]

[br]

Vignoles, who was of Huguenot descent, was orphaned in infancy and brought up in the family of his grandfather, Dr Charles Hutton FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After service in the Army he travelled to America, arriving in South Carolina in 1817. He was appointed Assistant to the state's Civil Engineer and surveyed much of South Carolina and subsequently Florida. After his return to England in 1823 he established himself as a civil engineer in London, and obtained work from the brothers George and John Rennie.

In 1825 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) lost their application for an Act of Parliament, discharged their engineer George Stephenson and appointed the Rennie brothers in his place. They in turn employed Vignoles to resurvey the railway, taking a route that would minimize objections. With Vignoles's route, the company obtained its Act in 1826 and appointed Vignoles to supervise the start of construction. After Stephenson was reappointed Chief Engineer, however, he and Vignoles proved incompatible, with the result that Vignoles left the L \& MR early in 1827.

Nevertheless, Vignoles did not sever all connection with the L \& MR. He supported John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in the construction of the locomotive Novelty and was present when it competed in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He attended the opening of the L \& MR in 1830 and was appointed Engineer to two railways which connected with it, the St Helens \& Runcorn Gap and the Wigan Branch (later extended to Preston as the North Union); he supervised the construction of these.

After the death of the Engineer to the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway, Vignoles supervised construction: the railway, the first in Ireland, was opened in 1834. He was subsequently employed in surveying and constructing many railways in the British Isles and on the European continent; these included the Eastern Counties, the Midland Counties, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester (which proved for him a financial disaster from which he took many years to recover), and the Waterford \& Limerick. He probably discussed rail of flat-bottom section with R.L. Stevens during the winter of 1830–1 and brought it into use in the UK for the first time in 1836 on the London \& Croydon Railway: subsequently rail of this section became known as "Vignoles rail". He considered that a broader gauge than 4 ft 8½ in. (1.44 m) was desirable for railways, although most of those he built were to this gauge so that they might connect with others. He supported the atmospheric system of propulsion during the 1840s and was instrumental in its early installation on the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway's Dalkey extension. Between 1847 and 1853 he designed and built the noted multi-span suspension bridge at Kiev, Russia, over the River Dnieper, which is more than half a mile (800 m) wide at that point.

Between 1857 and 1863 he surveyed and then supervised the construction of the 155- mile (250 km) Tudela \& Bilbao Railway, which crosses the Cantabrian Pyrenees at an altitude of 2,163 ft (659 m) above sea level. Vignoles outlived his most famous contemporaries to become the grand old man of his profession.

[br]

See also: Samuda, Joseph d'Aguilar

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

Richard Roberts was the son of a shoemaker and tollkeeper and received only an elementary education at the village school. At the age of 10 his interest in mechanics was stimulated when he was allowed by the Curate, the Revd Griffith Howell, to use his lathe and other tools. As a young man Roberts acquired a considerable local reputation for his mechanical skills, but these were exercised only in his spare time. For many years he worked in the local limestone quarries, until at the age of 20 he obtained employment as a pattern-maker in Staffordshire. In the next few years he worked as a mechanic in Liverpool, Manchester and Salford before moving in 1814 to London, where he obtained employment with Henry Maudslay. In 1816 he set up on his own account in Manchester. He soon established a reputation there for gear-cutting and other general engineering work, especially for the textile industry, and by 1821 he was employing about twelve men. He built machine tools mainly for his own use, including, in 1817, one of the first planing machines.

One of his first inventions was a gas meter, but his first patent was obtained in 1822 for improvements in looms. His most important contribution to textile technology was his invention of the self-acting spinning mule, patented in 1825. The normal fourteen-year term of this patent was extended in 1839 by a further seven years. Between 1826 and 1828 Roberts paid several visits to Alsace, France, arranging cottonspinning machinery for a new factory at Mulhouse. By 1826 he had become a partner in the firm of Sharp Brothers, the company then becoming Sharp, Roberts \& Co. The firm continued to build textile machinery, and in the 1830s it built locomotive engines for the newly created railways and made one experimental steam-carriage for use on roads. The partnership was dissolved in 1843, the Sharps establishing a new works to continue locomotive building while Roberts retained the existing factory, known as the Globe Works, where he soon after took as partners R.G.Dobinson and Benjamin Fothergill (1802–79). This partnership was dissolved c. 1851, and Roberts continued in business on his own for a few years before moving to London as a consulting engineer.

During the 1840s and 1850s Roberts produced many new inventions in a variety of fields, including machine tools, clocks and watches, textile machinery, pumps and ships. One of these was a machine controlled by a punched-card system similar to the Jacquard loom for punching rivet holes in plates. This was used in the construction of the Conway and Menai Straits tubular bridges. Roberts was granted twenty-six patents, many of which, before the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852, covered more than one invention; there were still other inventions he did not patent. He made his contribution to the discussion which led up to the 1852 Act by publishing, in 1830 and 1833, pamphlets suggesting reform of the Patent Law.

In the early 1820s Roberts helped to establish the Manchester Mechanics' Institute, and in 1823 he was elected a member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. He frequently contributed to their proceedings and in 1861 he was made an Honorary Member. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1838. From 1838 to 1843 he served as a councillor of the then-new Municipal Borough of Manchester. In his final years, without the assistance of business partners, Roberts suffered financial difficulties, and at the time of his death a fund for his aid was being raised.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

[br]

[br]

Isaac Holden's father, who had the same name, had been a farmer and lead miner at Alston in Cumbria before moving to work in a coal-mine near Glasgow. After a short period at Kilbarchan grammar school, the younger Isaac was engaged first as a drawboy to two weavers and then, after the family had moved to Johnstone, Scotland, worked in a cotton-spinning mill while attending night school to improve his education. He was able to learn Latin and bookkeeping, but when he was about 15 he was apprenticed to an uncle as a shawl-weaver. This proved to be too much for his strength so he returned to scholastic studies and became Assistant to an able teacher, John Kennedy, who lectured on physics, chemistry and history, which he also taught to his colleague. The elder Isaac died in 1826 and the younger had to provide for his mother and younger brother, but in 1828, at the age of 21, he moved to a teaching post in Leeds. He filled similar positions in Huddersfield and Reading, where in October 1829 he invented and demonstrated the lucifer match but did not seek to exploit it. In 1830 he returned because of ill health to his mother in Scotland, where he began to teach again. However, he was recommended as a bookkeeper to William Townend, member of the firm of Townend Brothers, Cullingworth, near Bingley, Yorkshire. Holden moved there in November 1830 and was soon involved in running the mill, eventually becoming a partner.

In 1833 Holden urged Messrs Townend to introduce seven wool-combing machines of Collier's designs, but they were found to be very imperfect and brought only trouble and loss. In 1836 Holden began experimenting on the machines until they showed reasonable success. He decided to concentrate entirely on developing the combing machine and in 1846 moved to Bradford to form an alliance with Samuel Lister. A joint patent in 1847 covered improvements to the Collier combing machine. The "square motion" imitated the action of the hand-comber more closely and was patented in 1856. Five more patents followed in 1857 and others from 1858 to 1862. Holden recommended that the machines should be introduced into France, where they would be more valuable for the merino trade. This venture was begun in 1848 in the joint partnership of Lister \& Holden, with equal shares of profits. Holden established a mill at Saint-Denis, first with Donisthorpe machines and then with his own "square motion" type. Other mills were founded at Rheims and at Croix, near Roubaix. In 1858 Lister decided to retire from the French concerns and sold his share to Holden. Soon after this, Holden decided to remodel all their machinery for washing and carding the gill machines as well as perfecting the square comb. Four years of excessive application followed, during which time £20,000 was spent in experiments in a small mill at Bradford. The result fully justified the expenditure and the Alston Works was built in Bradford.

Holden was a Liberal and from 1865 to 1868 he represented Knaresborough in Parliament. Later he became the Member of Parliament for the Northern Division of the Riding, Yorkshire, and then for the town of Keighley after the constituencies had been altered. He was liberal in his support of religious, charitable and political objectives. His house at Oakworth, near Keighley, must have been one of the earliest to have been lit by electricity.

[br]

◙ n. סוקר, בירת בוליביה; שם משפחה; אנטוניו חוסה דה סוקר (1793-1830), גנרל מונצואלה ומנהיג עצמאות דרום-אמריקאי שהיה נשיאה הראשון של בוליביה (1826-1828)

* * *

◙ (8281-6281) היבילוב לש ןושארה האישנ היהש יאקירמא-םורד תואמצע גיהנמו הלאוצנומ לרנג,(0381-3971) רקוס הד הסוח וינוטנא ;החפשמ םש ;היבילוב תריב,רקוס◄

◙ n. אנטוניו חוסה דה סוקרה (1793-1830), גנרל מונצואלה ומנהיג דרום אמריקאי שהיה נשיאה הראשון של בוליביה (1826-1828)

n. Sucre, grondwettige hoofdstad van Bolivië; familienaam; Antonio José de Sucre (1793-1830), Venezolaanse generaal enZuid-Amerikaanse onafhankelijkheidsleider die de eerste president van Bolivië was (1826-1828)

1) Город на юго-востоке штата Южная Каролина. Расположен на узком полуострове между эстуариями рек Эшли [ Ashley River] (первоначально находился только на ее западном берегу) и Купер [Cooper River] у входа в залив Атлантического океана. 96,6 тыс. жителей (2000). В МСА Чарлстон - Норт-Чарлстон [Charleston - North Charleston MSA (MSA)] 549 тыс. человек (2000). Административный центр [ county seat] округа Чарлстон [Charleston County]. Второй по величине город штата. Крупный порт на Атлантическом побережье; глубоководная гавань. Транспортный узел. Химическая промышленность (производство удобрений, красителей, синтетического волокна, нефтехимия), производство бумаги, сигар, судостроение, приборостроение. Курорт. Чарлстонский колледж [College of Charleston] (1770) - старейший муниципальный колледж США, Цитадель [ Citadel, The] (1842), Мединский университет Южной Каролины [Medical University of South Carolina] (1824), Чарлстонский университет Юга [Charleston Southern University] (1964), Технический колледж Трайдент [Trident Technical College] (1964). Основан в 1670 на западном берегу р. Эшли и назван Чарлз-Таун [Charles Towne] в честь английского короля Карла II. В 1680 поселение перенесено на полуостров и вскоре получило развитие как торговый центр и транспортный узел для продукции плантаций региона (хлопок, рис, индиго), став также крупным портом ввоза рабов. В 1722 назывался "Город и порт Чарльза" [Charles City and Port]. Уже к середине XVIII в. город был важным культурным центром; здесь была крупнейшая в колониях еврейская община, жили французские гугеноты. В 1775 здесь собирался провинциальный конгресс, провозгласивший создание штата Южная Каролина. Во время Войны за независимость [ War of Independence] горожане дважды отражали нападения англичан (в 1776 и в 1779), но в 1780 Чарлстон был захвачен и удерживался ими до 1782. Статус города и современное название с 1783. До 1790 был столицей штата. На город не распространялись ограничения, наложенные британскими властями на торговлю с США, и Чарлстон был главным зимним портом страны вплоть до начала англо-американской войны 1812-14 [ War of 1812]. Позднее усилилась зависимость экономики от монокультуры хлопка [ King Cotton], в финансовой сфере и торговле господствовали северяне. 20 декабря 1860 в городе был принят Ордонанс о сецесии Южной Каролины [ ordinance of secession]. В феврале 1865 после 19-месячной осады город был захвачен армией Союза [ Union Army]. Открытие фосфатных залежей (1867) стало важным источником промышленного развития Чарлстона. В 1886 город серьезно пострадал от землетрясения. Возрождение экономики было связано с созданием военно-морской верфи (1901) и развитием военной промышленности во время второй мировой войны. В 1989 ураган "Хьюго" [Hurricane Hugo] нанес серьезный ущерб Чарлстону. Закрытие военной судоверфи и военно-морской базы [ Charleston Naval Base] в апреле 1996 также негативно сказалось на городской экономике. Среди достопримечательностей - историческая часть города с разнообразной архитектурой, в том числе колониального периода, живописными двориками и садами (особенно в кварталах к югу от Маркет-стрит [Market Street]); фортификационные сооружения у Чарлстонской бухты [Charleston Harbor] форт Самтер [ Fort Sumter] (примерно в 5,5 км к юго-востоку от города), нападение на который 12 апреля 1861 стало первым сражением Гражданской войны [ Civil War], крепость Пинкни [Castle Pinckney] (1797), а также Форт Моултри [Fort Moultrie] на острове Салливана [Sullivans Island]; Художественный музей Гиббса [Gibbes Museum of Art], Чарлстонское библиотечное общество [Charleston Library Society] (1748), одна из первых библиотек в стране, Каролинская ассоциация искусств [Carolina Art Association] (1858). Чарлстонский музей [Charleston Museum] (1773) является старейшим в США. Много исторических памятников в пригороде. Место проведения известного ежегодного фестиваля искусств.

2) Город в центральной части штата Западная Вирджиния. Расположен у слияния рек Канова [ Kanawha River] и Элк [Elk River], в Аллеганах [ Allegheny Mountains]. Столица штата Западная Вирджиния, административный центр округа Канова [Kanawha County]. 53,4 тыс. жителей (2000); крупнейший город штата. В МСА Чарлстон [Charleston MSA] 251,6 тыс. человек (2000). Крупный центр угольной и химической промышленности (производство пластмасс, минеральных удобрений), металлообрабатывающая промышленность, деревообработка. Торгово-промышленный центр района добычи битуминозного угля, нефти, газа. Аэропорт Йегера [Yeager Airport] в северо-восточном пригороде (назван в честь уроженца этих мест летчика-испытателя Ч. Йегера [ Yeager, Charles Elwood (Chuck)]). Чарлстонский университет [Charleston, University of] (1888; ранее назывался колледж Морриса Харви [Morris Harvey College]). Среди достопримечательностей - парк Кунскин [Coonskin Park], реставрированный особняк "Рассвет" [Sunrise] с планетарием и художественным музеем, здание Капитолия штата [State Capitol] (строительство завершено в 1932; архитектор К. Джилберт [ Gilbert, Cass]), особняк губернатора. Новый центр искусств и наук Западной Вирджинии [Center for the Arts and Sciences of West Virginia] включает музей штата, архивы, библиотеку, театр. Основан в 1788 как форт Ли [Fort Lee], построенный полковником Дж. Кленденином [Clendenin, George] по разрешению Т. Джефферсона [ Jefferson, Thomas]. Позднее район был заселен иммигрантами шотландско-ирландского происхождения [ Scotch-Irish] и выходцами из Германии. Поселение было названо Чарльз-Таун [Charles Town] в честь отца Кленденина (1794), а в 1819 получило современное название. Город лежал на пути миграции в долину р. Огайо [ Ohio River]. В начале 90-х годов XVIII в. интересы его жителей в законодательной ассамблее Вирджинии представлял знаменитый Д. Бун [ Boone, Daniel]. В первые десятилетия XIX в. был важным центром производства соли. В результате сражения за Чарлстон [Charleston, Battle of] во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] 13 сентября 1862 город был оккупирован северянами. Получив статус города в 1870, Чарлстон был временной столицей штата в 1870-75; в 1885 был окончательно утвержден в качестве столицы.

3) Город на востоке штата Иллинойс, на р. Эмбаррас [Embarrass River]. 21 тыс. жителей (2000). Административный центр округа Коулс [Coles County] (с 1830). Центр сельскохозяйственного района. Производство обуви. Основан в 1826 неким Б. Паркером [Parker, Benjamin] и назван в честь первого почтмейстера Чарлза Мортона [Morton, Charles]. Статус поселка [ village] с 1835, статус города [ city] с 1865. Городок служил местом адвокатской практики будущего президента А. Линкольна [ Lincoln, Abraham], здесь же в сентябре 1858 прошли его четвертые по счету дебаты с А. Дугласом [ Lincoln-Douglas Debates]. Университет Восточного Иллинойса [Eastern Illinois University] (1895). В пригороде парк к реконструкцией хижины семьи Линкольнов [Lincoln Log State Historic Site], парк штата Фокс-Ридж [Fox Ridge State Park], озеро Чарлстон [Lake Charleston].

1) Прозвище первых паровозов. Первая железная дорога длиной в три мили с повозкой на конной тяге для вывозки гранита из каменоломни в порт появилась в США в Массачусетсе в 1826. В следующем году была создана первая пассажирская линия Балтимор - Огайо [ Baltimore and Ohio Railroad], также на конной тяге. Лишь в 1830 появились первые паровозы.

тж steam horse

см тж Tom Thumb

2) см Gehrig, Lou (Iron Horse)

см тж New Harmony

(1768-1837)

   From a modest background, Domingos was educated at the Casa Pia of Lisbon, after which he attended the design and figure drawing course at the Aula Régia. In 1788, while working as a decorator, he received a scholarship from Queen Maria I to study at the Portuguese Academy in Rome, where he took classes from Antônio Cavallucci. Later, he studied at the Academy of San Luca. He returned to Lisbon in 1795. He was named court painter in 1802, and codirected the decoration of the Palace of Ajudá. In 1803, he was professor of drawing and painting to the royal princesses and, in 1806, director of drawing in Oporto. His works included patriotic allegories and portraits. He contributed to the cause of Portuguese nationalism through his art. He painted Junot Protecting Lisbon (1808), Apotheosis of Wellington (1811), and, in 1821, the portraits of 33 liberal deputies.

   After the return of absolutist King Miguel I (1802-66) in 1828, Domingos went into exile in France, where he showed his work at the Louvre alongside that of other romantic painters, such as Eugéne Delacroix. His Death of Camões won a gold medal. In 1826, he settled in Rome, where he dedicated himself to religious painting, the Life of Christ (1828) and Final Judgement (1830) being the best of these. He died in Rome without returning to Portugal in 1837. His work is considered transitional from neoclassicism to romanticism.

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

[br]

[br]

After Koenig and Bauer had introduced the machine printing-press and returned to Germany, it fell to Applegath and his mechanic brother-in-law Edward Cooper to effect improvements. In particular, Applegath succeeded Koenig and Bauer as machine specialist to The Times newspaper, then in the vanguard of printing technology.

Applegath and Cooper first came into prominence when the Bank of England began to seek ways of reducing the number of forged banknotes. In 1816 Cooper patented a device for printing banknotes from curved stereotypes fixed to a cylinder. These were inked and printed by the rotary method. Although Applegath and Cooper were granted money to develop their invention, the Bank did not pursue it. The idea of rotary printing was interesting, but it was not followed up, possibly due to lack of demand.

Applegath and Cooper were then engaged by John Walter of The Times to remedy defects in Koenig and Bauer's presses; in 1818 Cooper patented an improved method of inking the forme and Applegath also took out patents for improvements. In 1821 Applegath had enough experience of these presses to set up as a manufacturer of printing machinery in premises in Duke Street, Blackfriars, in London. Increases in the size and circulation of The Times led Walter to ask Applegath to build a faster press. In 1827 he produced a machine with the capacity of four presses, his steam-driven four-feeder press.

Its flat form carrying the type passed under four impression cylinders in a row. It could make 4,200 impressions an hour and sufficed to print The Times for twenty years, until it was superseded by the rotary press devised by Hoe. By 1826, however, Applegath was in financial difficulties; he sold his Duke Street workshop to William Clowes, a book printer. In the following year he gave up being a full-time manufacturer of printing machinery and turned to silk printing. In 1830 he patented a machine for printing rolls of calico and silk from bent intaglio plates.

In 1848 Applegath was persuaded by The Times to return to newspaper printing. He tackled rotary printing without the benefit of curved printing plates and roll paper feed, and he devised a large "type revolving" machine which set the pattern for newspaper printing-presses for some twenty years.

[br]

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

[br]

[br]

Booth followed his father as a Liverpool corn merchant but had great mechanical aptitude. In 1824 he joined the committee for the proposed Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) and after the company obtained its Act of Parliament in 1826 he was appointed Treasurer.

In 1829 the L \& MR announced a prize competition, the Rainhill Trials, for an improved steam locomotive: Booth, realizing that the power of a locomotive depended largely upon its capacity to raise steam, had the idea that this could be maximized by passing burning gases from the fire through the boiler in many small tubes to increase the heating surface, rather than in one large one, as was then the practice. He was apparently unaware of work on this type of boiler even then being done by Marc Seguin, and the 1791 American patent by John Stevens. Booth discussed his idea with George Stephenson, and a boiler of this type was incorporated into the locomotive Rocket, which was built by Robert Stephenson and entered in the Trials by Booth and the two Stephensons in partnership. The boiler enabled Rocket to do all that was required in the trials, and far more: it became the prototype for all subsequent conventional locomotive boilers.

After the L \& MR opened in 1830, Booth as Treasurer became in effect the general superintendent and was later General Manager. He invented screw couplings for use with sprung buffers. When the L \& MR was absorbed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1845 he became Secretary of the latter, and when, later the same year, that in turn amalgamated with the London \& Birmingham Railway (L \& BR) to form the London \& North Western Railway (L \& NWR), he became joint Secretary with Richard Creed from the L \& BR.

Earlier, completion in 1838 of the railway from London to Liverpool had brought problems with regard to local times. Towns then kept their own time according to their longitude: Birmingham time, for instance, was 7¼ minutes later than London time. This caused difficulties in railway operation, so Booth prepared a petition to Parliament on behalf of the L \& MR that London time should be used throughout the country, and in 1847 the L \& NWR, with other principal railways and the Post Office, adopted Greenwich time. It was only in 1880, however, that the arrangement was made law by Act of Parliament.

[br]