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    1) Geology: safe load capacity
    3) Construction: accepted load, allowable bearing capacity (на основание), allowable load (на конструкцию), bearable load, permissible load, safe working load (на элемент конструкции), safe-load rating
    4) Automobile industry: (наибольшая) bearable load, charge of surety, safe allowable load
    7) Drilling: load (bearing) capacity, load-carrying capacity, safety weight
    8) Oil&Gas technology carrying capacity
    9) Quality control: admissible load, load-bearing ( load-carrying) capacity, safe-bearing load
    10) Makarov: work load, working load

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  • 42 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 43 пълен

    1. full
    (цял) complete
    (за текст) integral; complete and unabridged
    (за биография) full length; entire
    пълна луна a full moon
    пълен до върха/горе full to the brim, brimful
    пълен комплект a complete set
    пълен пансион board and lodging, full board
    пълен с пари flush with cash; rolling in money
    пълен с опасности/последствия fraught with dangers/consequences
    в пълния смисъл на думата in the full sense of the word
    в пълен ход прен. in full swing
    с пълна пара full steam (ahead) (и прен.), пълен чувал a sackful
    с пълен глас at the top of o.'s voice
    трамваят е пълен с хора the tram is full of/packed with people
    пълна мощност full/aggregate capacity
    в пълен състав in full strength/force
    съд в пълен състав a plenary court
    не говори с пълна уста don't talk with your mouth full
    лягам си с пълен стомах go to bed on a full stomach
    къщата им е пълна прен. they live in plenty
    2. (абсолютен) absolute, utter, sheer; total
    пълен покой, пълна почивка absolute/complete rest
    пълна тишина complete/blank silence
    пълно невежество absolute/utter/total ignorance
    пълно мнозинство an absolute majority
    пълен неуспех a complete/dead failure
    пълен застой deadlock
    пълен кръг a perfect circle
    пълна противоположност an exact/a precise/a direct opposite
    в пълно противоречие с in direct contradiction to
    в пълна изправност in perfect working order
    пълно затъмнение астр. a total ellipse
    пълна глупост sheer/utter nonsense
    пълда неспособност/мизерия utter inability/poverty
    пълна подкрепа full/unqualified/all-out support
    пълно подчинение implicit/unquestioning obedience
    пълно съгласие complete agreement
    в пълно съгласие с in full accord/agreement with
    пълна тайна a dead secret
    пълна колективизация complete/all-round collectivisation
    3. stout
    (за жена, дете и) plump
    пълен сирак вж. сирак
    пълен член грам. the nominative article
    срещаш ме с пълно-ще ми върви your shopping bags are full so I'll be lucky today
    * * *
    пъ̀лен,
    прил., -на, -но, -ни 1. full; ( цял) complete; (за текст) integral; complete and unabridged; в \пъленен състав in full strength/force; в \пъленен ход прен. in full steam (ahead) (и прен.); в \пъленна парадна униформа in full regimentals; къщата им е \пъленна прен. they live in plenty; лягам си с \пъленен стомах go to bed on a full stomach; не говори с \пъленна уста don’t talk with your mouth full; \пъленен до върха/горе full to the brim, brimful; \пъленен до пръсване cram-full; \пъленен комплект complete set; \пъленен с опасности/последствия fraught with dangers/consequences; \пъленен с пари flush with cash; rolling in money; \пъленен чувал sackful; \пъленна луна full moon, full-orbed moon; \пъленна мощност full/aggregate capacity; \пъленна стая a room full (c of); \пъленно издание на съчинения complete works; с \пъленна мощност full-power; full-sail; с \пъленни шепи generously; съд в \пъленен състав a plenary court;
    2. ( абсолютен) absolute, utter, sheer; total; разг. out-and-out; downright; fuul-on; презр. deep-dyed; ( съвършен) perfect; в \пъленна безопасност perfectly safe; в \пъленна изправност in perfect working order; в \пъленно противоречие с in direct contradiction to; в \пъленно съгласие с in full accord/agreement with; \пъленен застой deadlock; \пъленен кръг perfect circle; \пъленна глупост sheer/utter nonsense; \пъленна неспособност/мизерия utter inability/poverty; \пъленна подкрепа full/unqualified/all-out support; \пъленна противоположност exact/precise/direct opposite; \пъленно въздържание total abstinence; \пъленно затъмнение астр. total eclipse; \пъленно мнозинство absolute majority; \пъленно отчаяние blank despair; \пъленно подчинение implicit/unquestioning obedience; \пъленно разорение utter ruin;
    3. ( дебел) corpulent, portly, fleshy, fleshly; stout; plump;
    4. (за огнестрелно оръжие) loaded; • дишам с \пъленни гърди breathe in deeply; \пъленен отличник a straight A student; \пъленен сирак a complete orphan, a parentless child; \пъленен член език. the nominative article; \пъленна шестица, \пъленно отличие full marks, straight six; срещаш ме с \пъленно ­ ще ми върви your shopping bags are full so I’ll be lucky today.
    * * *
    full: пълен of surprises - пълен с изненади, make пълен confession - правя пълни признания, a пълен stomach - пълен стомах; complete: a пълен set - пълен комплект; filled: This cup is пълен with coffee. - Чашата е пълна с кафе.; compendious: an пълен fool - пълен глупак; corpulent; fraught{frO;t}; implicit; out-and-out{aut End aut}; outright; perfect (и съвършен): a пълен circle - пълен кръг; plenary; rotund{`routXnd}; roundabout; thorough-paced{TXrx `peisd}; total: a пълен success - пълен успех; unreserved; vast{va;st}; very
    * * *
    1. (абсолютен)absolute, utter, sheer;total 2. (за биография) full length;entire 3. (за жена, дете и) plump 4. (за огнестрелно оръжие) loaded 5. (за текст) integral;complete and unabridged 6. (съвършен)perfect 7. (цял) complete 8. full 9. stout 10. ПЪЛЕН до върха/горе full to the brim, brimful 11. ПЪЛЕН застой deadlock 12. ПЪЛЕН комплект a complete set 13. ПЪЛЕН кръг a perfect circle 14. ПЪЛЕН неуспех a complete/dead failure 15. ПЪЛЕН пансион board and lodging, full board 16. ПЪЛЕН покой, пълна почивка absolute/ complete rest 17. ПЪЛЕН с опасности/ последствия fraught with dangers/consequences 18. ПЪЛЕН с пари flush with cash;rolling in money 19. ПЪЛЕН сирак вж. сирак 20. ПЪЛЕН член грам. the nominative article 21. в ПЪЛЕН състав in full strength/force 22. в ПЪЛЕН ход прен. in full swing 23. в пълна безопасност perfectly safe 24. в пълна изправност in perfect working order 25. в пълна парадна униформа in full regimentals 26. в пълния смисъл на думата in the full sense of the word 27. в пълно противоречие с in direct contradiction to 28. в пълно съгласие с in full accord/agreement with 29. дишам с пълня гърди breathe in deeply 30. къщата им е пълна прен. they live in plenty 31. лягам си с ПЪЛЕН стомах go to bed on a full stomach 32. не говори с пълна уста don't talk with your mouth full 33. под пълна тайна as a dead secret 34. правя пълни самопризнания confess fully 35. пълда неспособност/мизерия utter inability/poverty 36. пълна глупост sheer/ utter nonsense 37. пълна колективизация complete/all-round collectivisation 38. пълна луна a full moon 39. пълна мощност full/aggregate capacity 40. пълна подкрепа full/unqualified/all-out support 41. пълна противоположност an exact/a precise/a direct opposite 42. пълна стая a roomful (c of) 43. пълна тайна а dead secret 44. пълна тишина complete/blank silence 45. пълна чаша а cupful 46. пълни самопризнания a full confession 47. пълно въздържание total abstinence 48. пълно затъмнение астр. а total ellipse 49. пълно издание на съчинения complete works 50. пълно мнозинство an absolute majority 51. пълно невежество absolute/utter/ total ignorance 52. пълно отчаяние blank despair 53. пълно подчинение implicit/unquestioning obedience 54. пълно разорение utter ruin 55. пълно съгласие complete agreement 56. с ПЪЛЕН глас at the top of o.'s voice 57. с пълна пара full steam (ahead) (u прен.), ПЪЛЕН чувал a sackful 58. с пълни подробности at full length 59. с пълни шепи generously 60. срещаш ме с пълно-ще ми върви your shopping bags are full so I'll be lucky today 61. съд в ПЪЛЕН състав a plenary court 62. трамваят е ПЪЛЕН с хора the tram is full of/packed with people

    Български-английски речник > пълен

  • 44 nivel

    m.
    1 level, height (altura).
    al nivel de level with
    al nivel del mar at sea level
    la capital está a 250 metros sobre el nivel del mar the capital is 250 meters above sea level
    2 level, standard (grado).
    no tiene un buen nivel de inglés his level of English is poor
    una reunión al más alto nivel a meeting at the highest level, a top-level meeting
    al mismo nivel (que) on a level o par (with)
    a nivel europeo at a European level
    nivel mental level of intelligence
    nivel de vida standard of living
    3 spirit level (instrument).
    4 carpenter's level, level.
    5 floor, storey, decker.
    De dos niveles Used as a suffix -decker: Double-decker
    * * *
    1 (altura) level, height
    2 (categoría) level, standard, degree
    \
    a nivel de as for
    ■ a nivel de gastos as far as expenses are concerned, regarding expenses
    al más alto nivel at the highest level
    nivel de producción production level
    nivel de vida standard of living
    nivel del mar sea level
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=altura) level, height

    la nieve alcanzó un nivel de 1,5m — the snow reached a depth of 1.5m

    a nivel — [gen] level, flush; (=horizontal) horizontal

    al nivel de — on a level with, at the same height as, on the same level as

    paso a nivel — level crossing, grade crossing (EEUU)

    nivel de(l) aceite — (Aut etc) oil level

    2) [escolar, cultural] level, standard

    conferencia al más alto nivel, conferencia de alto nivel — high-level conference, top-level conference

    estar al nivel de — to be equal to, be on a level with

    niveles de audiencia — ratings, audience rating sing ; (TV) viewing figures

    3) (=instrumento) (tb: nivel de aire, nivel de burbuja) spirit level
    4)

    a nivel de — (=en cuanto a) as for, as regards; (=como) as; (=a tono con) in keeping with

    a nivel de viajes — so far as travel is concerned, regarding travel

    * * *
    a) ( altura) level
    b) (en escala, jerarquía) level
    * * *
    = degree, extent, index [indices/indexes, -pl.], level, range, scale, threshold, rank, gradation, grade, plateau [plateaux, -pl.], stratum [strata, -pl.], tier, rung.
    Ex. This degree of standardisation is not the pattern outside of this specific area of application.
    Ex. The extent of searchable elements will vary from one data base to another.
    Ex. As job anxiety scores increased, job satisfaction indices decreased.
    Ex. In particular series entries are useful for series where the series title indicates a particular subject scope, style of approach, level or audience.
    Ex. Overall, the library media specialists experienced stress in the mild to moderate range.
    Ex. Various scales of relevance ratings may be established.
    Ex. But documents with the following terms assigned would be rejected on the grounds that their combined weights did not exceed the pre-selected threshold.
    Ex. However, Cutter suggested that we should ignore on economic grounds both upward links (from narrower to broader subjects) and collateral (sideways) links from one term to another of equal rank.
    Ex. Until the mid nineteen hundreds, this community presented an almost feudal pattern of wealthy merchants and factory hands, with several gradations between these extremes.
    Ex. The project is concerned with the investigation of conditions of appointment for women librarians as well as the grades and salary scales assigned to library tasks.
    Ex. With the advent of both library on-line public access catalogue and end-user searching of on-line and CD-ROM data bases, the need for improved instruction in library use approaches a new plateau.
    Ex. However, amongst this stratum of the population, library users demonstrated greater residential stability.
    Ex. The author proposes a four tier planning framework for information technology, information systems and information management.
    Ex. In all types of libraries, programmes have been started, usually by keen librarians from the lower rungs of the profession.
    ----
    * a bajo nivel = low-level.
    * a diferentes niveles = multi-tiered [multitiered], multi-tier [multitier].
    * a dos niveles = two-tier.
    * alcanzar niveles mínimos = reach + a low ebb.
    * alfabetización a nivel mundial = world literacy.
    * al mismo nivel de = flush with.
    * al mismo nivel que = on a par with, in the same league as.
    * alto nivel = high standard.
    * a muchos niveles = many-levelled [many-leveled, -USA].
    * a nivel de barrio = neighbourhood-based.
    * a nivel de calle = on the ground level.
    * a nivel de la calle = at ground level.
    * a nivel del suelo = at ground level.
    * a nivel estatal = statewide [state-wide].
    * a nivel federal = federally, federally.
    * a nivel individual = privately.
    * a nivel local = locally, domestically.
    * a nivel multicultural = multi-culturally [multiculturally].
    * a nivel mundial = worldwide [world-wide], globally.
    * a nivel nacional = nationally, domestically, countrywide [country-wide].
    * a nivel privado = privately.
    * a nivel regional = regionally.
    * a todos los niveles = at all levels.
    * a tres niveles = three-tiered.
    * a un alto nivel = high level [high-level].
    * a un nivel básico = at a lay level.
    * a un nivel por debajo del nacional = sub-national [subnational].
    * a varios niveles = multilevel [multi-level], at varying levels, many-levelled [many-leveled, -USA].
    * bajada de nivel = drawdown.
    * bajar el nivel = lower + the bar.
    * barrera de paso a nivel = level-crossing gate.
    * clasificado por nivel de dificultad = graded.
    * construido en dos niveles = split-level.
    * con una nivel de especialización medio = semi-skilled.
    * con un buen nivel = fluent.
    * con un mayor nivel educativo = better educated [better-educated].
    * con un menor nivel educativo = lesser-educated.
    * con un nivel de estudios alto = well educated [well-educated].
    * curva de nivel = contour line.
    * dar un nivel de prioridad alto = put + Nombre + high on + Posesivo + list of priorities.
    * de alto nivel = of a high order, high level [high-level], high-powered.
    * de bajo nivel = lower-level, low-level.
    * de diferentes niveles = multi-tiered [multitiered], multi-tier [multitier].
    * de dos niveles = two-tier.
    * de nivel cultural bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * de nivel cultural medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * de nivel intelectual bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * de nivel intelectual medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * de nivel medio = medium level [medium-level], middle-range, mid-level.
    * de nivel superior = upper-level, top echelon, higher-level.
    * de primer nivel = first-level.
    * descenso de nivel = drawdown.
    * descripción bibliográfica de primer nivel = first-level bibliographic description.
    * de segundo nivel = second-level.
    * de tercer nivel = third-level.
    * de tres niveles = three-tiered.
    * de varios niveles = multilevel [multi-level].
    * en cuatro niveles = quadraplaner.
    * en dos niveles = split-level.
    * en el nivel básico = at grass roots level.
    * en el nivel intermedio de = in the middle range of.
    * en el nivel medio de = in the middle range of.
    * en otro nivel = on a different plane.
    * en su nivel más bajo = at its lowest ebb.
    * en un nivel bajo = at a low ebb.
    * estar al mismo nivel = be on a par.
    * gestor de nivel medio = middle manager.
    * gran nivel = high standard.
    * nivel alto de dirección = higher management.
    * nivel alto de gestión = higher management.
    * nivel avanzado = advanced level.
    * nivel básico = introductory level.
    * nivel cultural = literacy.
    * nivel de aceptación = adoption rate, acceptance rate.
    * nivel de adopción = adoption rate.
    * nivel de alfabetización = literacy, literacy rate.
    * nivel de analfabetismo = illiteracy rate.
    * nivel de atención = attention span.
    * nivel de azúcar en la sangre = level of blood sugar.
    * nivel de cobertura = depth of coverage.
    * nivel de colesterol = cholesterol level.
    * nivel de colesterol en la sangre = blood cholesterol level.
    * nivel de confianza = confidence level.
    * nivel de demanda = level of demand.
    * nivel de desarrollo = stage of development, developmental level, development level, level of development.
    * nivel de detalle = completeness, granularity, level of detail.
    * nivel de dominio medio = working knowledge.
    * nivel de estudios = educational background, level of education.
    * nivel de ingresos = income level, earning capacity, earning power.
    * nivel de la calle = road-level.
    * nivel del agua = water level.
    * nivel del alfabetización = literacy.
    * nivel de lectura = reading ability.
    * nivel de los usuarios = audience level.
    * nivel del público = audience level.
    * nivel del subconsciente, el = subconscious level, the.
    * nivel de luminosidad = light level.
    * nivel de pobreza = poverty level.
    * nivel de presentación = level of presentation.
    * nivel de ruido = noise level.
    * nivel de saciedad = point of futility.
    * nivel de satisfacción del usuario = user satisfaction.
    * nivel de saturación = point of futility.
    * nivel de solvencia = credit rating.
    * nivel de subdivisión = granularity.
    * nivel de utilización = degree of use.
    * nivel de vida = standard of living, living standard.
    * nivel económico = wealth.
    * nivel educativo = educational level, education level, level of education.
    * nivel escolar = grade level.
    * niveles de detalle en la descripción = levels of detail in the description.
    * nivel freático = groundwater table, water table.
    * nivel inferior = micro level [micro-leve/microlevel].
    * nivel intermedio = meso level, intermediate level.
    * nivel introductorio = introductory level.
    * nivel jerárquico falso = false link.
    * nivel máximo = high-water mark.
    * nivel máximo del agua = high-water mark.
    * nivel medio = middle range.
    * nivel medio de gestión = middle management.
    * nivel mínimo = low-water mark.
    * nivel mínimo del agua = low-water mark.
    * nivel profesional = competence, professional level.
    * nivel salarial = salary bracket.
    * nivel socioeconómico = socioeconomic status.
    * nivel superior = top level, top layer, macro level [macro-leve/macrolevel].
    * ocupar un nivel de prioridad alto = be high on + list, rank + high on the list of priorities.
    * pasar al siguiente nivel = move it up + a gear, take it up + a gear, notch it up + a gear, take it up + a notch, crank it up + a notch, crank it up + a gear, move it up + a notch.
    * paso a nivel = level-crossing.
    * persona con nivel cultural medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * persona de nivel cultural bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * persona de nivel intelectual bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * poner al mismo nivel que = bring + Nombre + to a par with.
    * por niveles = multilayered [multi-layered/multi layered], multilayer, layered, tiered.
    * preparación contra emergencias a nivel nacional = domestic preparedness.
    * rebajarse al nivel de Alguien = get down to + Posesivo + level.
    * ser de alto nivel = be at a high level.
    * sin ningún nivel de especialización = unskilled.
    * situado a nivel de la calle = ground-floor.
    * subir de nivel = move it up + a gear, take it up + a gear, notch it up + a gear, take it up + a notch, crank it up + a notch, crank it up + a gear, move it up + a notch.
    * subir el nivel = raise + standard, raise + the bar.
    * teoría de niveles integrados = theory of integrative levels.
    * último nivel, el = bottom rung, the.
    * * *
    a) ( altura) level
    b) (en escala, jerarquía) level
    * * *
    = degree, extent, index [indices/indexes, -pl.], level, range, scale, threshold, rank, gradation, grade, plateau [plateaux, -pl.], stratum [strata, -pl.], tier, rung.

    Ex: This degree of standardisation is not the pattern outside of this specific area of application.

    Ex: The extent of searchable elements will vary from one data base to another.
    Ex: As job anxiety scores increased, job satisfaction indices decreased.
    Ex: In particular series entries are useful for series where the series title indicates a particular subject scope, style of approach, level or audience.
    Ex: Overall, the library media specialists experienced stress in the mild to moderate range.
    Ex: Various scales of relevance ratings may be established.
    Ex: But documents with the following terms assigned would be rejected on the grounds that their combined weights did not exceed the pre-selected threshold.
    Ex: However, Cutter suggested that we should ignore on economic grounds both upward links (from narrower to broader subjects) and collateral (sideways) links from one term to another of equal rank.
    Ex: Until the mid nineteen hundreds, this community presented an almost feudal pattern of wealthy merchants and factory hands, with several gradations between these extremes.
    Ex: The project is concerned with the investigation of conditions of appointment for women librarians as well as the grades and salary scales assigned to library tasks.
    Ex: With the advent of both library on-line public access catalogue and end-user searching of on-line and CD-ROM data bases, the need for improved instruction in library use approaches a new plateau.
    Ex: However, amongst this stratum of the population, library users demonstrated greater residential stability.
    Ex: The author proposes a four tier planning framework for information technology, information systems and information management.
    Ex: In all types of libraries, programmes have been started, usually by keen librarians from the lower rungs of the profession.
    * a bajo nivel = low-level.
    * a diferentes niveles = multi-tiered [multitiered], multi-tier [multitier].
    * a dos niveles = two-tier.
    * alcanzar niveles mínimos = reach + a low ebb.
    * alfabetización a nivel mundial = world literacy.
    * al mismo nivel de = flush with.
    * al mismo nivel que = on a par with, in the same league as.
    * alto nivel = high standard.
    * a muchos niveles = many-levelled [many-leveled, -USA].
    * a nivel de barrio = neighbourhood-based.
    * a nivel de calle = on the ground level.
    * a nivel de la calle = at ground level.
    * a nivel del suelo = at ground level.
    * a nivel estatal = statewide [state-wide].
    * a nivel federal = federally, federally.
    * a nivel individual = privately.
    * a nivel local = locally, domestically.
    * a nivel multicultural = multi-culturally [multiculturally].
    * a nivel mundial = worldwide [world-wide], globally.
    * a nivel nacional = nationally, domestically, countrywide [country-wide].
    * a nivel privado = privately.
    * a nivel regional = regionally.
    * a todos los niveles = at all levels.
    * a tres niveles = three-tiered.
    * a un alto nivel = high level [high-level].
    * a un nivel básico = at a lay level.
    * a un nivel por debajo del nacional = sub-national [subnational].
    * a varios niveles = multilevel [multi-level], at varying levels, many-levelled [many-leveled, -USA].
    * bajada de nivel = drawdown.
    * bajar el nivel = lower + the bar.
    * barrera de paso a nivel = level-crossing gate.
    * clasificado por nivel de dificultad = graded.
    * construido en dos niveles = split-level.
    * con una nivel de especialización medio = semi-skilled.
    * con un buen nivel = fluent.
    * con un mayor nivel educativo = better educated [better-educated].
    * con un menor nivel educativo = lesser-educated.
    * con un nivel de estudios alto = well educated [well-educated].
    * curva de nivel = contour line.
    * dar un nivel de prioridad alto = put + Nombre + high on + Posesivo + list of priorities.
    * de alto nivel = of a high order, high level [high-level], high-powered.
    * de bajo nivel = lower-level, low-level.
    * de diferentes niveles = multi-tiered [multitiered], multi-tier [multitier].
    * de dos niveles = two-tier.
    * de nivel cultural bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * de nivel cultural medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * de nivel intelectual bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * de nivel intelectual medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * de nivel medio = medium level [medium-level], middle-range, mid-level.
    * de nivel superior = upper-level, top echelon, higher-level.
    * de primer nivel = first-level.
    * descenso de nivel = drawdown.
    * descripción bibliográfica de primer nivel = first-level bibliographic description.
    * de segundo nivel = second-level.
    * de tercer nivel = third-level.
    * de tres niveles = three-tiered.
    * de varios niveles = multilevel [multi-level].
    * en cuatro niveles = quadraplaner.
    * en dos niveles = split-level.
    * en el nivel básico = at grass roots level.
    * en el nivel intermedio de = in the middle range of.
    * en el nivel medio de = in the middle range of.
    * en otro nivel = on a different plane.
    * en su nivel más bajo = at its lowest ebb.
    * en un nivel bajo = at a low ebb.
    * estar al mismo nivel = be on a par.
    * gestor de nivel medio = middle manager.
    * gran nivel = high standard.
    * nivel alto de dirección = higher management.
    * nivel alto de gestión = higher management.
    * nivel avanzado = advanced level.
    * nivel básico = introductory level.
    * nivel cultural = literacy.
    * nivel de aceptación = adoption rate, acceptance rate.
    * nivel de adopción = adoption rate.
    * nivel de alfabetización = literacy, literacy rate.
    * nivel de analfabetismo = illiteracy rate.
    * nivel de atención = attention span.
    * nivel de azúcar en la sangre = level of blood sugar.
    * nivel de cobertura = depth of coverage.
    * nivel de colesterol = cholesterol level.
    * nivel de colesterol en la sangre = blood cholesterol level.
    * nivel de confianza = confidence level.
    * nivel de demanda = level of demand.
    * nivel de desarrollo = stage of development, developmental level, development level, level of development.
    * nivel de detalle = completeness, granularity, level of detail.
    * nivel de dominio medio = working knowledge.
    * nivel de estudios = educational background, level of education.
    * nivel de ingresos = income level, earning capacity, earning power.
    * nivel de la calle = road-level.
    * nivel del agua = water level.
    * nivel del alfabetización = literacy.
    * nivel de lectura = reading ability.
    * nivel de los usuarios = audience level.
    * nivel del público = audience level.
    * nivel del subconsciente, el = subconscious level, the.
    * nivel de luminosidad = light level.
    * nivel de pobreza = poverty level.
    * nivel de presentación = level of presentation.
    * nivel de ruido = noise level.
    * nivel de saciedad = point of futility.
    * nivel de satisfacción del usuario = user satisfaction.
    * nivel de saturación = point of futility.
    * nivel de solvencia = credit rating.
    * nivel de subdivisión = granularity.
    * nivel de utilización = degree of use.
    * nivel de vida = standard of living, living standard.
    * nivel económico = wealth.
    * nivel educativo = educational level, education level, level of education.
    * nivel escolar = grade level.
    * niveles de detalle en la descripción = levels of detail in the description.
    * nivel freático = groundwater table, water table.
    * nivel inferior = micro level [micro-leve/microlevel].
    * nivel intermedio = meso level, intermediate level.
    * nivel introductorio = introductory level.
    * nivel jerárquico falso = false link.
    * nivel máximo = high-water mark.
    * nivel máximo del agua = high-water mark.
    * nivel medio = middle range.
    * nivel medio de gestión = middle management.
    * nivel mínimo = low-water mark.
    * nivel mínimo del agua = low-water mark.
    * nivel profesional = competence, professional level.
    * nivel salarial = salary bracket.
    * nivel socioeconómico = socioeconomic status.
    * nivel superior = top level, top layer, macro level [macro-leve/macrolevel].
    * ocupar un nivel de prioridad alto = be high on + list, rank + high on the list of priorities.
    * pasar al siguiente nivel = move it up + a gear, take it up + a gear, notch it up + a gear, take it up + a notch, crank it up + a notch, crank it up + a gear, move it up + a notch.
    * paso a nivel = level-crossing.
    * persona con nivel cultural medio = middlebrow [middle-brow].
    * persona de nivel cultural bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * persona de nivel intelectual bajo = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * poner al mismo nivel que = bring + Nombre + to a par with.
    * por niveles = multilayered [multi-layered/multi layered], multilayer, layered, tiered.
    * preparación contra emergencias a nivel nacional = domestic preparedness.
    * rebajarse al nivel de Alguien = get down to + Posesivo + level.
    * ser de alto nivel = be at a high level.
    * sin ningún nivel de especialización = unskilled.
    * situado a nivel de la calle = ground-floor.
    * subir de nivel = move it up + a gear, take it up + a gear, notch it up + a gear, take it up + a notch, crank it up + a notch, crank it up + a gear, move it up + a notch.
    * subir el nivel = raise + standard, raise + the bar.
    * teoría de niveles integrados = theory of integrative levels.
    * último nivel, el = bottom rung, the.

    * * *
    A
    1 (altura) level
    está a 2.300 metros sobre el nivel del mar it is 2,300 meters above sea level
    pon los cuadros al mismo nivel hang the pictures at the same height
    2 (en una escala, jerarquía) level
    negociaciones al más alto nivel top-level negotiations
    un funcionario de bajo nivel a low-ranking civil servant
    a nivel de mandos medios at middle-management level
    una solución a nivel internacional an international solution
    la obra no llega a pasar del nivel de un melodrama the play never rises above melodrama
    no está al nivel de los demás he's not up to the same standard as the others, he's not on a par with the others
    no supo estar al nivel de las circunstancias he failed to rise to the occasion, he didn't live up to expectations
    es incapaz de comprometerse tanto a nivel político como a nivel personal he's incapable of committing himself either politically or emotionally o on either a political or an emotional level
    Compuestos:
    standard of living
    water table
    B ( Const) tb
    nivel de burbuja or de aire spirit level
    * * *

     

    nivel sustantivo masculino

    b) (en escala, jerarquía) level;


    nivel de vida standard of living;
    no está al nivel de los demás he's not up to the same standard as the others;
    el nivel de las universidades mexicanas the standard of Mexican universities
    nivel sustantivo masculino
    1 (de las aguas, de un punto) level: estamos tres metros sobre el nivel del mar, we are at three metres above sea level
    2 (cultural, social, económico) level, standard: su nivel de francés es peor que el tuyo, her level of French is lower than yours
    3 (jerarquía) level
    4 (utensilio) level
    5 Ferroc paso a nivel, level crossing, US grade crossing
    ' nivel' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    alta
    - alto
    - altura
    - baja
    - bajo
    - escalón
    - indicador
    - indicadora
    - ministerial
    - paso
    - plana
    - plano
    - ras
    - tren
    - alcanzar
    - azúcar
    - chato
    - competir
    - creces
    - crecida
    - cultural
    - descender
    - descenso
    - desnivelado
    - elemental
    - elevar
    - equiparar
    - hundimiento
    - hundir
    - intermedio
    - menguar
    - parejo
    - rango
    - sobre
    - sobrepasar
    - superior
    English:
    above
    - academic
    - catch up
    - crossing
    - down
    - grade
    - ground level
    - high-level
    - high-powered
    - intermediate
    - keep up
    - level
    - level crossing
    - living standards
    - maintain
    - oil
    - oil gauge
    - par
    - plane
    - proficiency
    - quality
    - rank
    - reach
    - sea-level
    - spirit level
    - stand
    - standard
    - top
    - top-level
    - up to
    - water level
    - watermark
    - A level
    - basis
    - bracket
    - catch
    - comprehensive
    - contour
    - county
    - deck
    - degree
    - descend
    - dumb
    - ground
    - high
    - keep
    - lapse
    - living
    - lowest common denominator
    - low
    * * *
    nivel nm
    1. [altura] level, height;
    al nivel de level with;
    al nivel del mar at sea level;
    la capital está a 250 metros sobre el nivel del mar the capital is 250 metres above sea level
    2. [piso, capa] level
    Geol nivel freático groundwater level o table
    3. [grado] level, standard;
    a nivel europeo at a European level;
    son los líderes a nivel mundial they are the world leaders;
    un problema que hay que abordar a nivel mundial a problem that has to be tackled internationally o globally;
    tiene un buen nivel de inglés she speaks good English;
    en esa universidad tienen un nivel altísimo the standard at that university is very high;
    una reunión al más alto nivel a meeting at the highest level, a top-level meeting;
    al mismo nivel (que) on a level o par (with)
    Informát nivel de acceso access level;
    nivel de colesterol cholesterol level;
    Informát niveles de gris grey(scale) levels;
    nivel mental level of intelligence;
    nivel de vida standard of living
    4. [instrumento]
    nivel (de burbuja) spirit level
    5.
    a nivel de [considerado incorrecto] as regards, as for;
    a nivel de salarios as regards o as for salaries;
    a nivel personal estoy contento on a personal level I'm happy
    * * *
    m
    1 level;
    a nivel mundial/nacional at o on a global/national level;
    un incremento del 4% a nivel nacional a 4% increase nationwide
    2 ( altura) height
    * * *
    nivel nm
    1) : level, height
    nivel del mar: sea level
    2) : level, standard
    nivel de vida: standard of living
    * * *
    1. (en general) level
    2. (calidad) standard

    Spanish-English dictionary > nivel

  • 45 remunerativo

    adj.
    remunerative, profit, profitable, lucrative.
    * * *
    1 remunerative
    * * *
    * * *
    Ex. In the early 1860s, the compositors in one shop averaged 9 pound per man in one week -- more than five times the average -- `while composing some unusually remunerative parliamentary work, and working almost night and day'.
    ----
    * poder remunerativo = earning capacity, earning power.
    * * *

    Ex: In the early 1860s, the compositors in one shop averaged 9 pound per man in one week -- more than five times the average -- `while composing some unusually remunerative parliamentary work, and working almost night and day'.

    * poder remunerativo = earning capacity, earning power.

    * * *
    remunerative ( frml), paid
    * * *
    remunerativo, -a adj
    remunerative
    * * *
    remunerativo, -va adj
    : remunerative

    Spanish-English dictionary > remunerativo

  • 46 грузоподъемность

    load-carrying ability, weight-carrying ability, elevating capacity, handling capacity, hoisting capacity, lifting capacity, load capacity, load carrying capacity, load-carrying capability, (напр. робота) payload capability, bearing capacity, carrying capacity, payload capacity, weight capacity, working load capacity, workpiece-carrying capacity, capacity, (напр. магнита) tractive effort, payload, lifting power, load rating, strength, workload

    Русско-английский исловарь по машиностроению и автоматизации производства > грузоподъемность

  • 47 potere

    1. v/i can, be able to
    non posso andare I can't go
    non ho potuto farlo I couldn't do it, I was unable to do it
    posso fumare? do you mind if I smoke?
    formale may I smoke?
    può essere perhaps, maybe
    può darsi perhaps, maybe
    2. m power
    potere d'acquisto purchasing power
    essere al potere be in power
    * * *
    potere v.servile
    1 (possibilità materiale o dipendente dalla capacità del sogg.) can (indic. e cong.pres.); could (indic. e cong.pass., cond.); to be* able: puoi venire quando vuoi, you can come when you like; può frequentare qualsiasi tipo di scuola, he can attend any kind of school; posso camminare per ore senza stancarmi, I can walk for hours without getting tired; non possiamo andare avanti così, we can't go on like this; non sempre si può fare ciò che si vuole, you can't always do what you like; come puoi pensare una cosa simile?, how can (o could) you think such a thing?; che cosa posso fare per te?, what can I do for you?; non poteva fare di più, he couldn't do any more; faremo quello che potremo, we'll do what we can; non potrà giocare perché si è infortunato, he can't play (o he won't be able to play) because he's been injured; stanotte non ho potuto dormire, I couldn't (o I wasn't able to) sleep last night; a quel punto, non potevano fare più nulla, at that point there was no more they could do (o they couldn't do anything else); non potè dire altro, he couldn't say anything else; come hai potuto farmi un torto simile?, how could you do this to me?; non può aver detto questo, he can't have said that; potrebbe tornare più tardi?, could you come back later?; potresti farmi un favore?, could you do me a favour?; ti aiuterei se potessi, I would help you if I could; se l'avessi saputo prima, avrei potuto aiutarti, if I'd known it before, I could have helped you; potevi almeno telefonarmi, you could at least have phoned me; in quella situazione che altro potevo fare?, what else could I have done in that situation?; potendo, lascerei la città e andrei a vivere in campagna, I'd leave the city and go and live in the country, if I could (o if I could, I'd leave...); non avendo potuto parlargli, gli lasciai un messaggio, not having been able (o having been unable) to speak to him, I left him a message; prometto di fare tutto ciò che posso, I promise I'll do all I can (o I'll do my best); vorrei poterti aiutare, I wish I could help you
    2 ( possibilità dipendente dalla volontà altrui) may (indic. e cong. pres.), might (indic.pass. nel discorso indiretto e cond.) ( entrambe le forme sono spesso sostituite nell'uso corrente da can, could, to be* able); to be* allowed, to be* permitted: posso fumare?, may I smoke (o is it all right if I smoke?); non si può fumare nei locali pubblici, smoking is not allowed (o permitted) in public places; se posso esprimere un parere..., if I may express an opinion...; posso farle una domanda?, may (o can) I ask you a question?; ''Possiamo entrare?'' ''No, è vietato l'ingresso al pubblico'', ''May (o Can) we come (o go) in?'' ''No, members of the public are not allowed to enter (o are not admitted o form. may not enter)''; potete pagare in contanti o in assegno, you can (o may) pay cash or by cheque; gli interessati possono presentare domanda di trasferimento, those concerned (o interested) may request a transfer; non puoi vedere quel film, è vietato ai minori, you can't see (o you aren't allowed to see) that film, it's an X certificate; non ci si può comportare così!, you can't (o you mustn't) behave like that!; chiese se poteva vederlo, he asked if he could (o form. might o might be permitted to) see him; disse che potevamo usare la sua macchina fotografica, he said we could (o form. might) use his camera; non abbiamo potuto passare dal centro perché era chiuso al traffico, we couldn't (o we were unable to o not allowed to) go through the centre, because it was closed to traffic; nessuno potrà assentarsi senza autorizzazione, no one can leave without permission; i certificati si possono ritirare solo in orario d'ufficio, certificates can (o may) only be collected during office hours; non puoi dire questo!, you can't (o you mustn't) say that!; non può che essere un errore, it must be a mistake; non può non rendersi conto che..., he must realise that...; non posso fare a meno di ammettere che..., I must (o have to) admit that... ∙ Come si nota dagli esempi, in questo significato l'uso di may, might è più formale di can, could; in espressioni negative con valore enfatico viene spesso usato must
    3 ( per esprimere eventualità) may, might; can, could; ( probabilità) to be* likely; to be* possible: posso, potrei sbagliarmi, I may, could (o might) be wrong; potresti aver ragione, you may (o could) be right; potrebbe arrivare domani, ma ne dubito, he might (o could) arrive tomorrow, but I doubt it; tutti possono sbagliare, anyone can make a mistake; potrei non giungere in tempo, I might not arrive in time; potrebbe esserci un errore, there might (o could) be a mistake; può essere utile sapere che..., it may help to know that...; può, potrebbe piovere, it may, might (o could) rain (o it's likely to rain); potevano essere circa le 3, it could (o might) have been about 3 o'clock; potrà sembrarti buffo, ma io la ritengo una cosa seria, you may (o might) think it's funny, but I think it's serious; ''Che cosa può essergli successo?'' ''Potrebbe aver perso il treno'', ''What can have happened to him?'' ''He may (o might) have missed the train''; cosa pensi che possa accadere?, what do you think is likely to (o might o could) happen?; chi potrebbe essere a quest'ora?, who could it be at this hour?; non è escluso che possa ancora vincere, he may (o might o could) still win // può essere, può darsi, maybe: ''Mi sembri di cattivo umore, oggi'' ''Può essere'', ''You look as if you're in a bad mood today'' ''Maybe''; ''Ti vedrò stasera?'' ''Può darsi'', ''Shall I see you this evening?'' ''Maybe'' // può darsi che, may (costr. pers.); maybe: può darsi che ti abbia scritto, maybe he has (o he may have) written to you; potrebbe darsi che avesse perso l'indirizzo, maybe he had (o he may have) lost the address; poteva darsi che non avesse capito, maybe he hadn't understood (o he may not have understood)
    4 (al cong., per esprimere augurio o forte desiderio) may, might; could: ( che) possiate essere felici!, may you be happy!; possa egli vivere cent'anni!, may he live a hundred years!; potessimo stare un po' tranquilli!, if only we might have a bit of peace!; ( magari) potessi aiutarlo!, if only I could help him!
    5 (al cond., per esprimere consiglio o esortazione) might, could: potresti almeno rispondere quando ti parlo!, you could (o might) at least answer when I speak to you!; avrebbe potuto per lo meno ringraziare!, he might (o could) at least have said thank you; potrebbero essere più gentili!, they might (o could) be more polite!; non era una prova facile, ma avresti potuto almeno tentare!, it wasn't an easy test, but you could (o might) at least have tried!
    ◆ v.tr. (avere potere, forza, influenza) to have an influence, to have an effect (on): l'esempio di un padre può molto sui figli, a father's example has a great influence on his children; le mie parole hanno potuto assai poco, my words had little effect // è uno che può, ( che ha denaro) he is a man of means; ( che ha potere) he's got a lot of pull.
    ◆ FRASEOLOGIA: a più non posso, all out: stava lavorando a più non posso, he was working all out // non ne posso più, ( sono sfinito) I'm exhausted, ( sono al limite della sopportazione) I'm at the end of my tether (o I can't take any more); non ne posso più di quell'uomo, I can't put up with that man any longer (o I've had enough of that man) // volere è potere, where there's a will there's a way // si salvi chi può, every man for himself // non posso fare a meno di pensare che..., I can't help thinking that... // non posso fare a meno di lui, I can't do without him; ( mi è indispensabile nel lavoro) I can't spare him // non posso farci niente, I can't help it (o I can't do anything about it) // non possiamo permetterci quel viaggio, we can't afford that trip // portane più che puoi, bring as much (o as many) as you can; vieni più in fretta che puoi, come as fast as you can; vieni più presto che puoi, come as soon as you can.
    potere s.m.
    1 power (anche fig.): potere assoluto, absolute power: avere potere assoluto su un popolo, to hold complete sway over a people; potere esecutivo, legislativo, executive, legislative power; potere centrale, periferico, central, local authority; la divisione del potere in uno stato democratico, the division of power in a democratic state; conflitto di potere tra l'autorità giudiziaria e quella politica, power struggle between the courts and the political authorities; i poteri governativi, governmental powers; il potere temporale del Papa, the temporal power of the Pope; abuso di potere, abuse of power; sete di potere, thirst for power; non ho il potere di decidere su questo punto, I have no power to decide on this point; ho il potere di scegliere ciò che voglio, I have the power to choose what I want; non ho potere su di loro, I have no power over them; avere poteri magici, to have magic powers // al potere, in power: i militari sono al potere, the military are in power; rimanere al potere, to remain in power; si impadronì del potere con un colpo di stato, he came into power through a coup d'état; la sua ascesa al potere fu rapida, his rise to power was rapid; salì al potere nel 1731, he rose to power in 1731; perse il potere nel 1930, he lost power in 1930 // in mio, tuo potere, in my, your power: cadde in suo potere, he fell into his power (o into his hands); la città è caduta in potere del nemico, the city fell into enemy hands; potere decisionale, decision-making power // potere operaio, workers' power // Quarto Potere, ( la stampa) Fourth Estate // Quinto Potere, ( la radio e la televisione) the broadcasting media (o the networks) // (econ.): potere contrattuale, bargaining power; potere di spesa, spending power; potere d'acquisto, purchasing (o buying) power; potere monopolistico, monopoly power; potere economico, economic power; potere di contrarre debiti, borrowing power // (fin.): potere finanziario, financial power; potere liberatorio, ( della moneta) debt-paying power
    2 (spec. pl.) ( potestà, diritti) powers: i poteri di un ministro, the powers of a minister: dare, conferire a qlcu. il potere di fare qlco., to give s.o. the authority (o the power) to do sthg.; vorrei definire i miei poteri, I should like to define my powers // pieni poteri, full powers; ambasciatore con pieni poteri, (ambassador) plenipotentiary; agire con, avere pieni poteri, to act, to be invested with full powers; nell'azienda gode di pieni poteri, he has full control over the company; dare, conferire pieni poteri, to grant full powers: dare, conferire pieni poteri a qlcu. di fare qlco., to empower s.o. to do sthg.
    3 ( possibilità) power, possibility; ( capacità) power, capacity: non ha il potere di agire in altro modo, he isn't able to act in any other way
    4 (fis.) power: potere assorbente, dispersivo, absorbent, dispersive power; potere calorifico, heating power; potere emissivo, emittance; potere rotatorio, rotatory power
    5 ( influenza) influence, sway: ha un grande potere su di me, he has great influence over me; le tue parole non hanno potere su di me, what you say has no effect on me (o form. your words have no power over me).
    * * *
    I [po'tere] sm
    (gen) power

    avere il potere di fare qc — (capacità) to have the power o ability to do sth, (autorità) to have the authority o power to do sth

    il quarto potere — (stampa) the fourth estate

    essere al potere Pol — to be in power o in office

    II [po'tere]
    1) (possibilità, capacità) can, (sogg : persona) can, to be able to

    non è potuto venire — he couldn't come, he was unable to come

    non ho potuto farlo — I couldn't o wasn't able o was unable to do it

    a più non posso — (correre) as fast as one can, (urlare) as loud as one can

    2) (permesso) can, may

    posso entrare? — can o may I come in?

    3)

    (eventualità) può anche esser vero — it may o might o could even be true

    può darsi che non venga — he may not o might not come

    può essere che non voglia — he may not o might not want to

    4)

    (augurio) potessimo trovare un po' di pace! — if only we could get a little peace!

    5)

    (rimprovero) potresti almeno ringraziare! — you could o might at least say thank you!

    avresti potuto dirmelo! — you could o might have told me!

    2. vt irreg
    * * *
    I [po'tere]
    verbo modale (the use of the auxiliary essere or avere in compound tenses depends on the verb in the infinitive that follows)
    1) (riuscire, essere in grado di) can, to be* able to

    se potrò permettermelo, comprerò una macchina — if I can afford it, I'll buy a car

    2) (per esprimere possibilità) can, may; (più remota) could, might; (per esprimere probabilità, opportunità) may, to be* likely; (più remota) might

    potrebbe essere Andy — it may be Andy; (meno probabile) it might be Andy

    potrebbe essere che... — it could be that...

    può darsi — maybe, perhaps, possibly

    può darsi che sia così, ma... — that's as may be, but...

    "vieni?" - "può darsi" — "will you come" - "I might"

    3) (per esprimere permesso, autorizzazione) can, to be* allowed to, may form.

    gli studenti non possono uscire dall'edificio senza autorizzazione — pupils can't o may not leave o are not allowed to leave the school without permission

    4) (nelle richieste) can; (più cortese) would, could

    potreste fare silenzio, per favore? — would you please be quiet?

    6) (per suggerire, dare un consiglio) can, could
    7) (essere nella condizione, posizione di) can

    non può non o che accettare he has no option but to accept; (per esprimere rimprovero) come hai potuto! how could you! avrebbero potuto o potevano avvertirci they could have warned us; non potevi dirmelo subito? why couldn't you have told me that right away? why didn't you tell me that right away? (per esprimere sorpresa) che può mai volere da me? — what can she possibly want from me?

    una persona che può — (che ha denaro) a person of means; (che ha potere) a very influential person

    lui può — iron. he's got a lot of pull

    10) a più non posso [ correre] as fast as one can; [ lavorare] as hard as one can, flat out; [ mangiare] as much as one can; [ gridare] at the top of one's voice
    ••

    volere è potere — prov. where there's a will, there's a way

    II [po'tere]
    sostantivo maschile
    1) (capacità) ability, capability, power

    -i magici, soprannaturali — magic, supernatural powers

    2) (influenza, autorità) power (su over)

    esercitare un potere su qcn. — to hold sway over sb.

    non avere nessun potere su qcn. — to have no power o influence over sb.

    3) pol. power

    prendere o assumere il potere to take power; rimanere al potere to stay in power; dare pieni -i a qcn. to give sb. full powers; avere pieni -i to have all powers; il quarto potere the fourth estate; il quinto potere — = the broadcasting media

    •

    potere d'acquisto — purchasing o spending power

    * * *
    potere2
    /po'tere/
    sostantivo m.
     1 (capacità) ability, capability, power; avere il potere di fare to be able to do; -i magici, soprannaturali magic, supernatural powers
     2 (influenza, autorità) power (su over); la tiene in suo potere he's got her in his power; esercitare un potere su qcn. to hold sway over sb.; non avere nessun potere su qcn. to have no power o influence over sb.; non ho il potere di prendere una decisione simile I'm not the one who decides
     3 pol. power; potere assoluto absolute power; gioco di potere power game; essere al potere to be in power; prendere o assumere il potere to take power; rimanere al potere to stay in power; dare pieni -i a qcn. to give sb. full powers; avere pieni -i to have all powers; il quarto potere the fourth estate; il quinto potere = the broadcasting media
    potere d'acquisto purchasing o spending power; potere esecutivo executive power; potere giudiziario judiciary; potere legislativo legislative power; - i straordinari emergency power.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > potere

  • 48 Tragfähigkeit

    Tragfähigkeit f load-bearing capacity, load-carrying capacity, load capacity, bearing capacity, bearing power, weight-carrying capacity, structural strength, ultimate bearing capacity, admissible load, working strength; lift capacity (Baukran); passenger-carrying capacity (Fahrstuhl, Aufzug); maximum load (Lastaufnahme)

    Deutsch-Englisch Fachwörterbuch Architektur und Bauwesen > Tragfähigkeit

  • 49 жизнеспособность

    2) Computers: liveness
    4) Engineering: pot life (клея, резиновых смесей, лакокрасочных материалов), spreadable life (клея, резиновых смесей, лакокрасочных материалов)
    5) Agriculture: germinating ability (семян), germination ability (семян)
    6) Construction: application life, working life
    7) Australian slang: zing
    8) Geography: ability to live
    10) Scottish language: foison
    11) Genetics: viability (количественный показатель, характеризующий уровень выживаемости выборки ( фенотипического класса) по сравнению с др. выборкой (стандарт) в данных условиях внешней среды)
    12) Special term: survivability
    14) Advertising: staying power
    15) Polymers: life, lifetime
    16) Plastics: spreadable life (клея), working life (клея)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > жизнеспособность

  • 50 རྩལ་

    [rtsal]
    external energy, skill, working, functioning, function, existential dynamics, potency, power, creativity, external projection, reflection, powers of manifestation, dexterity, adroitness, very powerful, prowess, adroit, conch shell, trumpet, manifestative power, expression, manifestation, strength, acrobatics, energy, mighty, feat, stunt, manifestative power of the ultimate mind, exterior manifestation of energy, capacity of energy to project itself externally just as a crystal illuminated by a ray of light has the capacity to project infinite rainbow colored rays around itself

    Tibetan-English dictionary > རྩལ་

  • 51 plein

    plein, pleine [plɛ̃, plεn]
    ━━━━━━━━━
    ━━━━━━━━━
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ► Lorsque plein fait partie d'une locution comme en plein air, en mettre plein la vue, reportez-vous aussi à l'autre mot.
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. <
       a. ( = rempli) full
    ► plein de ( = rempli de) full of ; [taches] covered in
       b. ( = complet) [succès, confiance, satisfaction] complete
       c. ( = non creux) [paroi, porte, pneu] solid ; [joues] chubby ; [voix] rich ; [trait] unbroken
       d. ( = enceinte) [vache] in calf ; [jument] in foal ; [brebis] in lamb
       e. ( = ivre) (inf!) plastered (inf!)
    2. <
       a. ( = beaucoup) (inf) tu as des romans ? -- j'en ai plein have you any novels? -- I've got loads
    ► plein de ( = beaucoup de) lots of
       b. ( = exactement vers) se diriger plein ouest to head due west
       c. (locutions)
    • en avoir plein les jambes (inf) to be exhausted► à plein [fonctionner, tourner] at full capacity ; [exploiter] to the full
    3. <
       b. [d'essence] faire le plein to fill up
    • le plein, s'il vous plaît fill it up please
    * * *

    1.
    pleine plɛ̃, plɛn adjectif
    1) ( rempli) full (de of)
    2)

    un plein verre/panier — a glassful/basketful (de of)

    saisir à pleines mains — to take hold of [something] with both hands [objet massif]; to pick up a handful of [terre, sable, pièces]

    3) ( non creux) [brique, mur] solid; [joues, visage] plump; [forme] rounded
    4) ( total) [pouvoir, accord, effet] full; [succès, confiance] complete
    5) ( entier) [mois] whole, full; [lune] full
    6) ( milieu)

    en pleine poitrine/réunion/forêt — (right) in the middle of the chest/meeting/forest

    7) Zoologie pleine [femelle] pregnant; [vache] in calf (après n); [jument] in foal (après n); [truie] in pig (après n)
    8) (colloq) ( ivre) sloshed (colloq), drunk

    2.

    3.
    nom masculin

    faire le plein de — lit to fill up with [eau, carburant]; fig to get a lot of [idées, voix, visiteurs]

    j'ai fait deux pleins or deux fois le plein pour venir ici — I took two tankfuls to get here

    2) ( en calligraphie) downstroke

    4.
    plein de (colloq) déterminant indéfini

    plein de — lots of, loads (colloq) of


    5.
    à plein locution adverbiale [bénéficier, utiliser] fully

    tourner or marcher à plein — to work flat out, to work to capacity


    6.
    en plein locution adverbiale

    il m'est rentré en plein dedans — (colloq) he crashed right into me


    7.
    tout plein (colloq) locution adverbiale really
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ••

    en avoir plein les jambes (colloq) or pattes — (colloq) to be worn out, to be fit to drop (colloq)

    en avoir plein le dos (colloq) or les bottes — (sl)to be fed up (to the back teeth) (colloq)

    (s')en prendre plein les gencives — (sl) to get it in the neck (colloq)

    * * *
    plɛ̃, plɛn plein, -e
    1. adj
    1) (= rempli) full

    plein de — full of, (= beaucoup de) lots of

    La rue est pleine de gens. — The street is full of people.

    2) (non creux) (porte, roue) solid
    3) (= gravide) (chienne) pregnant, (jument) in foal

    à pleines mains [ramasser] — in handfuls, [empoigner] firmly

    à plein régime — at maximum revs, figat full speed

    Elle travaille à plein temps. — She works full-time.

    2. nm
    1) [carburant]

    faire le plein — to fill up (with petrol Grande-Bretagne), to fill up (with gas USA)

    Le plein, s'il vous plaît. — Fill it up, please.

    2) (= maximum)
    3. pleins nmpl
    CALLIGRAPHIE downstrokes
    * * *
    A adj
    1 ( rempli) full (de of); être plein à craquer to be full to bursting; j'ai les mains pleines my hands are full; il avait les yeux pleins de larmes his eyes were full of tears; être plein de vie/d'idées/de fraîcheur to be full of life/of ideas/of freshness; être plein d'humour [personne, film, livre] to be amusing; des huîtres bien pleines nice fat oysters; une jupe pleine de taches a skirt covered with stains; avoir le nez plein○ to need to blow one's nose;
    2 ( indiquant une quantité maximale) un plein verre/panier/pot a glassful/basketful/potful (de of); une pleine assiette/valise/salle a plateful/suitcaseful/roomful (de of); il a une pleine cave de vin/chambre de jouets he has a cellar full of wine/bedroom full of toys; un plein carton de vieux journaux a boxful of old newspapers; prendre or saisir qch à pleines mains to take hold of sth with both hands [objet massif]; to pick up a handful of sth [terre, sable, pièces de monnaie];
    3 ( non creux) [brique, mur, cloison] solid; [joues, visage] plump; [forme] rounded;
    4 ( total) [pouvoir, accord, effet, adhésion] full; [succès, satisfaction, confiance] complete; confier or voter les pleins pouvoirs à qn to grant sb full power; avec le plein accord de qn with sb's full agreement; avoir la pleine maîtrise/utilisation de qch to have full control/use of sth; plein et entier [accord, adhésion, responsabilité] full; avoir la responsabilité pleine et entière de qch to have full responsibility for sth;
    5 ( entier) [jour, mois, année] whole, full; [lune] full; il faut compter un mois plein you should allow a full month; c'est la pleine mer it is high tide;
    6 ( milieu) en pleine poitrine/tête (right) in the middle of the chest/head; en pleine réunion/nuit/crise (right) in the middle of the meeting/night/crisis; en pleine ville/forêt/campagne (right) in the middle of the town/forest/countryside; en plein cœur right in the heart; en plein centre-ville right in the centreGB of town; en plein mois d'août right in the middle of August; en plein jour in broad daylight; en plein été at the height of summer; en plein hiver in the depths of winter; en pleine mer on the open sea; être en pleine mutation or évolution to be experiencing radical change; être en pleine récession to be in a deep recession;
    7 Zool pleine [femelle] pregnant; [vache] in calf; [jument] in foal; [truie] in pig;
    8 ○( ivre) sloshed○, drunk;
    9 ( en parlant de cuir) reliure pleine peau full leather binding; un livre avec une reliure pleine peau a fully leather-bound book; manteau/veste pleine peau coat/jacket made out of full skins.
    B adv
    1 ( exprimant une grande quantité) avoir des billes plein les poches to have one's pockets full of marbles; il a des idées plein la tête he's full of ideas;
    2 ( directement) être orienté plein sud/nord to face due south/north.
    C nm
    1 ( de réservoir) faire le plein de lit to fill up with [eau, carburant]; fig to get a lot of [idées, voix, visiteurs]; s'arrêter pour faire le plein to stop to fill up; j'ai fait deux pleins or deux fois le plein pour venir ici I took two tankfuls to get here; le plein s'il vous plaît fill it up please;
    2 Phys les pleins et les vides plenums and vacuums;
    3 ( en calligraphie) downstroke; les pleins et les déliés the downstrokes and upstrokes.
    D ○ plein de dét indéf plein de lots of, loads○ of [choses, argent, bises, amis]; tu veux des timbres? j'en ai (tout) plein do you want any stamps? I've got loads.
    E à plein loc adv [bénéficier, utiliser] fully; tourner or marcher à plein [machine, entreprise] to work flat out, to work to capacity.
    F en plein loc adv en plein devant right in front of; atterrir en plein dans le jardin/sur le toit to land right in the middle of the garden GB ou yard US/on top of the roof; l'avion s'est écrasé en plein sur l'immeuble the plane crashed straight into the building; il m'est rentré en plein dedans○ he crashed right into me.
    G ○ tout plein loc adv really; gentil/mignon tout plein really nice/sweet.
    pleine page Imprim full page; pleine propriété Jur freehold.
    en avoir plein les jambes or pattes○ to be worn out, to be fit to drop○; en avoir plein le dos○ or les bottes○ or le cul● to be fed up (to the back teeth) (de with); (s')en prendre plein les gencives○ or la gueule● to get it in the neck○.
    ( féminin pleine) [plɛ̃, plɛn] adjectif
    1. [rempli] full
    être plein d'enthousiasme/de bonne volonté to show great enthusiasm/willingness
    plein aux as (familier) loaded, stinking rich
    a. [valise] bulging, bursting, crammed full
    b. [salle] packed
    un gros plein de soupe (familier) a tub of lard, a fat slob
    a. (familier) [valise, salle] to be chock-a-block
    b. [personne repue] to be stuffed
    2. [massif] solid
    3. [complet] full
    plein temps, temps plein full-time
    être ou travailler à temps plein to work full-time
    a. [généralement] full page
    b. [en publicité, sur une page] full-page ad
    c. [en publicité, sur deux pages] spread
    4. [chargé] busy, full
    5. [en intensif]
    chanter/crier à plein gosier to sing/to shout at the top of one's voice
    foncer/rouler (à) plein tube to go/to drive flat out
    6. [arrondi] full
    avoir des joues pleines to have chubby cheeks, to be chubby-cheeked
    7. ZOOLOGIE [vache] in calf
    [jument] in foal
    [chatte] pregnant
    8. (littéraire) [préoccupé]
    être plein de soi-même/son sujet to be full of oneself/one's subject
    9. JEUX [couleur] full
    10. ASTRONOMIE & MÉTÉOROLOGIE full
    ————————
    nom masculin
    1. [de carburant] full tank
    avec un plein, tu iras jusqu'à Versailles you'll get as far as Versailles on a full tank
    le plein, s'il vous plaît fill her ou it up, please
    faire le plein de vitamines/soleil (figuré) to stock up on vitamins/sunshine
    [de courses]
    2. [maximum]
    donner son plein [personne] to give one's best, to give one's all
    3. [en calligraphie] downstroke
    4. CONSTRUCTION solid ou massive parts
    ————————
    adverbe
    il est mignon tout plein, ce bébé what a cute little baby
    2. [non creux]
    ————————
    préposition
    [partout dans] all over
    j'ai des plantes plein ma maison my house is full of plants, I have plants all over the house
    j'en ai plein les bottes ou pattes (familier) my feet are killing me, I'm bushed
    a. [se faire reprendre] to get a right rollocking (UK), to get bawled out (US)
    b. [être éperdu d'admiration] to be bowled over
    ————————
    à plein locution adverbiale
    les moteurs/usines tournent à plein the engines/factories are working to full capacity
    ————————
    de plein droit locution adverbiale
    exiger ou réclamer quelque chose de plein droit to demand something as of right ou as one's right
    ————————
    de plein fouet locution adjectivale
    ————————
    de plein fouet locution adverbiale
    ————————
    en plein locution adverbiale
    1. [en entier] in full, entirely
    2. [complètement, exactement]
    en plein dans/sur right in the middle of/on top of
    ————————
    en plein locution prépositionnelle,
    en pleine locution prépositionnelle
    [au milieu de, au plus fort de]
    une industrie en plein essor a boom ou fast-growing industry
    ————————
    plein de locution déterminante
    il y avait plein de gens dans la rue there were crowds ou masses of people in the street
    tu veux des bonbons/de l'argent? j'en ai plein do you want some sweets/money? I've got loads ou lots

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > plein

  • 52 почти совсем работающий

    продолжающий работать; работающий — working upon

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > почти совсем работающий

  • 53 предотвращенные затраты

    1. avoided costs

     

    предотвращенные затраты
    Это затраты, которых избегает коммунальное предприятие, покупая электроэнергию у независимого производителя, вместо того, чтобы производить электроэнергию самостоятельно, закупать электроэнергию у другого источника или строить новые электростанции. Комиссия по коммунальным предприятиям рассчитывает предотвращенные затраты для каждого коммунального предприятия, и эти затраты служат основой, для оплаты электроэнергии, производимой независимыми производителями. Расчет предотвращенных затрат состоит из двух частей: предотвращенные затраты по пропускной способности строительства новых электростанций и предотвращенные энергетические затраты на топливо и эксплуатацию и обслуживание коммунальных электростанций (Термины Рабочей Группы правового регулирования ЭРРА).
    [Англо-русский глосcарий энергетических терминов ERRA]

    EN

    avoided costs
    These are costs that a utility avoids by purchasing power from an independent producer rather than generating power themselves, purchasing power from another source or constructing new power plants. A public utility commission calculates avoided costs for each utility, and these costs are the basis upon which independent power producers are paid for the electricity they produce. There are two parts to an avoided cost calculation: the avoided capacity cost of constructing new power plants and the avoided energy cost of fuel and operating and maintaining utility power plants (ERRA Legal Regulation Working Group Terms).
    [Англо-русский глосcарий энергетических терминов ERRA]

    Тематики

    EN

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > предотвращенные затраты

  • 54 πνεῦμα

    πνεῦμα, ατος, τό (πνέω; Aeschyl., Pre-Socr., Hdt.+. On the history of the word s. Rtzst., Mysterienrel.3 308ff).
    ① air in movement, blowing, breathing (even the glowing exhalations of a volcanic crater: Diod S 5, 7, 3)
    ⓐ wind (Aeschyl. et al.; LXX, EpArist, Philo; Jos., Ant. 2, 343; 349; SibOr 8, 297) in wordplay τὸ πνεῦμα πνεῖ the wind blows J 3:8a (EpJer 60 πνεῦμα ἐν πάσῃ χώρᾳ πνεῖ. But s. TDonn, ET 66, ’54f, 32; JThomas, Restoration Qtrly 24, ’81, 219–24). ὀθόνη πλοίου ὑπὸ πνεύματος πληρουμένη MPol 15:2. Of God ὁ ποιῶν τοὺς ἀγγέλους αὐτοῦ πνεύματα who makes his angels winds Hb 1:7; 1 Cl 36:3 (both Ps 103:4).
    ⓑ the breathing out of air, blowing, breath (Aeschyl. et al.; Pla., Tim. 79b; LXX) ὁ ἄνομος, ὅν ὁ κύριος Ἰησοῦς ἀνελεῖ τῷ πνεύματι τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ 2 Th 2:8 (cp. Is 11:4; Ps 32:6).
    ② that which animates or gives life to the body, breath, (life-)spirit (Aeschyl. et al.; Phoenix of Colophon 1, 16 [Coll. Alex. p. 231] πν.=a breathing entity [in contrast to becoming earth in death]; Polyb. 31, 10, 4; Ps.-Aristot., De Mundo 4 p. 394b, 8ff; PHib 5, 54 [III B.C.]; PGM 4, 538; 658; 2499; LXX; TestAbr A 17 p. 98, 19 [Stone p. 44] al.; JosAs 19:3; SibOr 4, 46; Tat. 4:2) ἀφιέναι τὸ πνεῦμα give up one’s spirit, breathe one’s last (Eur., Hec. 571; Porphyr., Vi. Plotini 2) Mt 27:50. J says for this παραδιδόναι τὸ πν. 19:3 (cp. ApcMos 31 ἀποδῶ τὸ πν.; Just., D. 105, 5). Of the return of the (life-)spirit of a deceased person into her dead body ἐπέστρεψεν τὸ πν. αὐτῆς Lk 8:55 (cp. Jdg 15:19). εἰς χεῖράς σου παρατίθεμαι τὸ πν. μου into your hands I entrust my spirit 23:46 (Ps 30:6; for alleged focus on ἐλπίζειν s. EBons, BZ 38, ’94, 93–101). κύριε Ἰησοῦ, δέξαι τὸ πνεῦμά μου Ac 7:59; composite of both passages AcPl Ha 10, 23 (cp. ApcMos 42). τὸ πν. μου ὁ δεσπότης δέξεται GJs 23:3 (on the pneuma flying upward after death cp. Epicharm. in Vorsokrat. 23 [=13, 4th ed.], B 9 and 22; Eur., Suppl. 533 πνεῦμα μὲν πρὸς αἰθέρα, τὸ σῶμα δʼ ἐς γῆν; PGM 1, 177ff τελευτήσαντός σου τὸ σῶμα περιστελεῖ, σοῦ δὲ τὸ πνεῦμα … εἰς ἀέρα ἄξει σὺν αὑτῷ ‘when you are dead [the angel] will wrap your body … and take your spirit with him into the sky’). τὸ σῶμα χωρὶς πν. νεκρόν ἐστιν Js 2:26. πν. ζωῆς ἐκ τ. θεοῦ εἰσῆλθεν ἐν αὐτοῖς (i.e. the prophet-witnesses who have been martyred) Rv 11:11 (cp. Ezk 37:10 v.l. εἰσῆλθεν εἰς αὐτοὺς πνεῦμα ζωῆς; vs. 5). Of the spirit that animated the image of a beast, and enabled it to speak and to have Christians put to death 13:15.—After a person’s death, the πν. lives on as an independent being, in heaven πνεύματα δικαὶων τετελειωμένων Hb 12:23 (cp. Da 3:86 εὐλογεῖτε, πνεύματα καὶ ψυχαὶ δικαίων, τὸν κύριον). According to non-biblical sources, the πν. are in the netherworld (cp. En 22:3–13; Sib Or 7, 127) or in the air (PGM 1, 178), where evil spirits can prevent them from ascending higher (s. ἀήρ2b). τοῖς ἐν φυλακῇ πνεύμασιν πορευθεὶς ἐκήρυξεν 1 Pt 3:19 belongs here if it refers to Jesus’ preaching to the spirits of the dead confined in Hades (so Usteri et al.; s. also JMcCulloch, The Harrowing of Hell, 1930), whether it be when he descended into Hades, or when he returned to heaven (so RBultmann, Bekenntnis u. Liedfragmente im 1 Pt: ConNeot11, ’47, 1–14).—CClemen, Niedergefahren zu den Toten 1900; JTurmel, La Descente du Christ aux enfers 1905; JMonnier, La Descente aux enfers 1906; HHoltzmann, ARW 11, 1908, 285–97; KGschwind, Die Niederfahrt Christi in die Unterwelt 1911; DPlooij, De Descensus in 1 Pt 3:19 en 4:6: TT 47, 1913, 145–62; JBernard, The Descent into Hades a Christian Baptism (on 1 Pt 3:19ff): Exp. 8th ser., 11, 1916, 241–74; CSchmidt, Gespräche Jesu mit seinen Jüngern: TU 43, 1919, 452ff; JFrings, BZ 17, 1926, 75–88; JKroll, Gott u. Hölle ’32; RGanschinietz, Katabasis: Pauly-W. X/2, 1919, 2359–449; Clemen2 89–96; WBieder, Die Vorstellung v. d. Höllenfahrt Jesu Chr. ’49; SJohnson, JBL 79, ’60, 48–51; WDalton, Christ’s Proclamation to the Spirits ’65. S. also the lit. in Windisch, Hdb.2 1930, exc. on 1 Pt 3:20; ESelwyn, The First Ep. of St. Peter ’46 and 4c below.—This is prob. also the place for θανατωθεὶς μὲν σαρκὶ ζωοποιηθεὶς δὲ πνεύματι• ἐν ᾧ καὶ … 1 Pt 3:18f (some mss. read πνεύματι instead of πνεύμασιν in vs. 19, evidently in ref. to the manner of Jesus’ movement; πνεῦμα is that part of Christ which, in contrast to σάρξ, did not pass away in death, but survived as an individual entity after death; s. ἐν 7). Likew. the contrast κατὰ σάρκα … κατὰ πνεῦμα Ro 1:3f. Cp. 1 Ti 3:16.
    ③ a part of human personality, spirit
    ⓐ when used with σάρξ, the flesh, it denotes the immaterial part 2 Cor 7:1; Col 2:5. Flesh and spirit=the whole personality, in its outer and inner aspects, oft. in Ign.: IMg 1:2; 13:1a; ITr ins; 12:1; IRo ins; ISm 1:1; IPol 5:1; AcPl Ant 13, 18 (=Aa I 237, 3).—In the same sense beside σῶμα, the body (Simplicius, In Epict. p. 50, 1; Ps.-Phoc. 106f; PGM 1, 178) 1 Cor 5:3–5; 7:34.—The inner life of humans is divided into ψυχὴ καὶ πνεῦμα (cp. Ps.-Pla., Axioch. 10 p. 370c τὶ θεῖον ὄντως ἐνῆν πνεῦμα τῇ ψυχῇ=a divine spirit was actually in the soul; Wsd 15:11; Jos., Ant. 1, 34; Tat. 13, 2; 15, 1 et al.; Ath. 27, 1. S. also Herm. Wr. 10, 13; 16f; PGM 4, 627; 630. ἐκ τριῶν συνεστάναι λέγουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἐκ ψυχῆς καὶ σώματος καὶ πνεύματος Did., Gen. 55, 14) Hb 4:12. Cp. Phil 1:27. τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ τὸ σῶμα 1 Th 5:23 (s. GMilligan, Thess. 1908, 78f; EvDobschütz in Meyer X7 1909, 230ff; EBurton, Spirit, Soul, and Flesh 1918; AFestugière, La Trichotomie des 1 Th 5:23 et la Philos. gr.: RSR 20, 1930, 385–415; CMasson, RTP 33, ’45, 97–102; FGrant, An Introd. to NT Thought ’50, 161–66). σαρκί, ψυχῇ, πνεύματι IPhld 11:2.
    ⓑ as the source and seat of insight, feeling, and will, gener. as the representative part of human inner life (cp. PGM 4, 627; 3 Km 20:5; Sir 9:9 al.; Just., D. 30, 1; Did., Gen. 232, 5) ἐπιγνοὺς ὁ Ἰησοῦς τῷ πν. αὐτοῦ Mk 2:8. ἀναστενάξας τῷ πν. αὐτοῦ λέγει 8:12 (s. ἀναστενάζω). ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πν. μου Lk 1:47 (in parallelism w. ψυχή vs. 46, as Sir 9:9). ἠγαλλιάσατο τῷ πν. 10:21 v.l., Ἰησοῦς ἐνεβριμήσατο τῷ πν. J 11:33 (s. ἐμβριμάομαι 3); Ἰης. ἐταράχθη τῷ πν. 13:21. παρωξύνετο τὸ πν. αὐτοῦ ἐν αὐτῷ Ac 17:16; ζέων τῷ πν. with spirit-fervor 18:25 (s. ζέω). τὸ παιδίον ἐκραταιοῦτο πνεύματι Lk 1:80; 2:40 v.l.; ἔθετο ὁ Παῦλος ἐν τῷ πν. Paul made up his mind Ac 19:21 (some would put this pass. in 6c, but cp. Lk 1:66 and analogous formulations Hom. et al. in L-S-J-M s.v. τίθημι A6). προσκυνήσουσιν τῷ πατρὶ ἐν πνεύματι of the spiritual, i.e. the pure, inner worship of God, that has nothing to do w. holy times, places, appurtenances, or ceremonies J 4:23; cp. vs. 24b. πν. συντετριμμένον (Ps 50:19) 1 Cl 18:17; 52:4.—2 Cl 20:4; Hv 3, 12, 2; 3, 13, 2.—This usage is also found in Paul. His conviction (s. 5 below) that the Christian possesses the (divine) πνεῦμα and thus is different fr. all other people, leads him to choose this word in preference to others, in order to characterize a believer’s inner being gener. ᾧ λατρεύω ἐν τῷ πν. μου Ro 1:9. οὐκ ἔσχηκα ἄνεσιν τῷ πν. μου 2 Cor 2:13. Cp. 7:13. As a matter of fact, it can mean simply a person’s very self or ego: τὸ πνεῦμα συμμαρτυρεῖ τῷ πνεύματι ἡμῶν the Spirit (of God) bears witness to our very self Ro 8:16 (cp. PGM 12, 327 ἠκούσθη μου τὸ πνεῦμα ὑπὸ πνεύματος οὐρανοῦ). ἀνέπαυσαν τὸ ἐμὸν πν. καὶ τὸ ὑμῶν they have refreshed both me and you 1 Cor 16:18. ἡ χάρις τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰ. Χρ. μετά τοῦ πν. (ὑμῶν) Gal 6:18; Phil 4:23; Phlm 25. Cp. 2 Ti 4:22. Likew. in Ign. τὸ ἐμὸν πν. my (unworthy) self IEph 18:1; IRo 9:3; cp. 1 Cor 2:11a—On the relation of the divine Spirit to the believer’s spiritual self, s. SWollenweider, Der Geist Gottes als Selbst der Glaubenden: ZTK 93, ’96, 163–92.—Only a part of the inner life, i.e. that which concerns the will, is meant in τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα πρόθυμον, ἡ δὲ σὰρξ ἀσθενής Mt 26:41; Mk 14:38; Pol 7:2. That which is inferior, anxiety, fear of suffering, etc. is attributed to the σάρξ.—The mng. of the expr. οἱ πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι Mt 5:3 is difficult to determine w. certainty (cp. Pla., Ep. 7, 335a πένης ἀνὴρ τὴν ψυχήν. The dat. as τῇ ψυχῇ M. Ant. 6, 52; 8, 51). The sense is prob. those who are poor in their inner life, because they do not have a misdirected pride in their own spiritual riches (s. AKlöpper, Über den Sinn u. die ursprgl. Form der ersten Seligpreisung der Bergpredigt bei Mt: ZWT 37, 1894, 175–91; RKabisch, Die erste Seligpreisung: StKr 69, 1896, 195–215; KKöhler, Die ursprgl. Form der Seligpreisungen: StKr 91, 1918, 157–92; JBoehmer, De Schatkamer 17, 1923, 11–16, TT [Copenhagen] 4, 1924, 195–207, JBL 45, 1926, 298–304; WMacgregor, ET 39, 1928, 293–97; VMacchioro, JR 12, ’32, 40–49; EEvans, Theology 47, ’44, 55–60; HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 134ff; Betz, SM 116 n. 178 for Qumran reff.).
    ⓒ spiritual state, state of mind, disposition ἐν ἀγάπῃ πνεύματί τε πραΰτητος with love and a gentle spirit 1 Cor 4:21; cp. Gal 6:1. τὸ πν. τοῦ νοὸς ὑμῶν Eph 4:23 (s. νοῦς 2a). ἐν τῷ ἀφθάρτῳ τοῦ ἡσυχίου πνεύματος with the imperishable (gift) of a quiet disposition 1 Pt 3:4.
    ④ an independent noncorporeal being, in contrast to a being that can be perceived by the physical senses, spirit (ELangton, Good and Evil Spirits ’42).
    ⓐ God personally: πνεῦμα ὁ θεός J 4:24a (Ath. 16, 2; on God as a spirit, esp. in the Stoa, s. MPohlenz, D. Stoa ’48/49. Hdb. ad loc. Also Celsus 6, 71 [Stoic]; Herm. Wr. 18, 3 ἀκάματον μέν ἐστι πνεῦμα ὁ θεός).
    ⓑ good, or at least not expressly evil spirits or spirit-beings (cp. CIG III, 5858b δαίμονες καὶ πνεύματα; Proclus on Pla., Cratyl. p. 69, 6; 12 Pasqu.; En 15:4; 6; 8; 10; TestAbr A 4 p. 81, 15f [Stone p. 10, 15f] πάντα τὰ ἐπουράνια πνεύματα; TestAbr B 13 p. 117, 26 [Stone p. 82] ὑψηλὸν πν.; PGM 3, 8 ἐπικαλοῦμαί σε, ἱερὸν πνεῦμα; 4, 1448; 3080; 12, 249) πνεῦμα w. ἄγγελος (cp. Jos., Ant. 4, 108; Ps.-Clem., Hom. 3, 33; 8, 12) Ac 23:8f. God is ὁ παντὸς πνεύματος κτίστης καὶ ἐπίσκοπος 1 Cl 59:3b.—Pl., God the μόνος εὐεργέτης πνεύματων 1 Cl 59:3a. Cp. 64 (s. on this Num 16:22; 27:16. Prayers for vengeance fr. Rheneia [Dssm., LO 351–55=LAE 423ff=SIG 1181, 2] τὸν θεὸν τὸν κύριον τῶν πνευμάτων; PGM 5, 467 θεὸς θεῶν, ὁ κύριος τῶν πν.; sim. the magic pap PWarr 21, 24; 26 [III A.D.]); the πατὴρ τῶν πνευμάτων Hb 12:9. Intermediary beings (in polytheistic terminology: δαίμονες) that serve God are called λειτουργικὰ πνεύματα Hb 1:14. In Rv we read of the ἑπτὰ πνεύματα (τοῦ θεοῦ) 1:4; 3:1; 4:5; 5:6; s. ASkrinjar, Biblica 16, ’35, 1–24; 113–40.— Ghost Lk 24:37, 39.
    ⓒ evil spirits (PGM 13, 798; 36, 160; TestJob 27, 2; ApcSed [both Satan]; AscIs 3:28; Just., D. 39, 6 al.; Ath. 25, 3), esp. in accounts of healing in the Synoptics: (τὸ) πνεῦμα (τὸ) ἀκάθαρτον (Just., D. 82, 3) Mt 12:43; Mk 1:23, 26; 3:30; 5:2, 8; 7:25; 9:25a; Lk 8:29; 9:42; 11:24; Rv 18:2. Pl. (TestBenj 5:2) Mt 10:1; Mk 1:27; 3:11; 5:13; 6:7; Lk 4:36; 6:18; Ac 5:16; 8:7; Rv 16:13; ending of Mk in the Freer ms.—τὸ πν. τὸ πονηρόν Ac 19:15f. Pl. (En 99:7; TestSim 4:9; 6:6, TestJud 16:1; Just., D. 76, 6) Lk 7:21; 8:2; Ac 19:12f.—πν. ἄλαλον Mk 9:17; cp. vs. 25b (s. ἄλαλος). πν. πύθων Ac 16:16 (s. πύθων). πν. ἀσθενείας Lk 13:11. Cp. 1 Ti 4:1b. πνεῦμα δαιμονίου ἀκαθάρτου (s. δαιμόνιον 2) Lk 4:33. πνεύματα δαιμονίων Rv 16:14 (in effect = personified ‘exhalations’ of evil powers; for the combination of πν. and δαιμ. cp. the love spell Sb 4324, 16f τὰ πνεύματα τῶν δαιμόνων τούτων).—Abs. of a harmful spirit Mk 9:20; Lk 9:39; Ac 16:18. Pl. Mt 8:16; 12:45; Lk 10:20; 11:26.—1 Pt 3:19 (s. 2 above) belongs here if the πνεύματα refer to hostile spirit-powers, evil spirits, fallen angels (so FSpitta, Christi Predigt an die Geister 1890; HGunkel, Zum religionsgesch. Verständnis des NT 1903, 72f; WBousset, ZNW 19, 1920, 50–66; Rtzst., Herr der Grösse 1919, 25ff; Knopf, Windisch, FHauck ad loc.; BReicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism ’46, esp. 54–56, 69).—Hermas also has the concept of evil spirits that lead an independent existence, and live and reign within the inner life of a pers.; the Holy Spirit, who also lives or would like to live there, is forced out by them (cp. TestDan 4) Hm 5, 1, 2–4; 5, 2, 5–8; 10, 1, 2. τὸ πν. τὸ ἅγιον … ἕτερον πονηρὸν πν. 5, 1, 2. These πνεύματα are ὀξυχολία 5, 1, 3; 5, 2, 8 (τὸ πονηρότατον πν.); 10, 1, 2; διψυχία 9:11 (ἐπίγειον πν. ἐστι παρὰ τοῦ διαβόλου); 10, 1, 2; λύπη 10, 1, 2 (πάντων τῶν πνευμάτων πονηροτέρα) and other vices. On the complicated pneuma-concept of the Mandates of Hermas s. MDibelius, Hdb. exc. on Hm 5, 2, 7; cp. Leutzsch, Hermas 453f n. 133.
    ⑤ God’s being as controlling influence, with focus on association with humans, Spirit, spirit as that which differentiates God fr. everything that is not God, as the divine power that produces all divine existence, as the divine element in which all divine life is carried on, as the bearer of every application of the divine will. All those who belong to God possess or receive this spirit and hence have a share in God’s life. This spirit also serves to distinguish Christians fr. all unbelievers (cp. PGM 4, 1121ff, where the spirit is greeted as one who enters devotees and, in accordance w. God’s will, separates them fr. themselves, i.e. fr. the purely human part of their nature); for this latter aspect s. esp. 6 below.
    ⓐ the Spirit of God, of the Lord (=God) etc. (LXX; TestSim 4:4; JosAs 8:11; ApcSed 14:6; 15:6; ApcMos 43; SibOr 3, 701; Ps.-Phoc. 106; Philo; Joseph. [s. c below]; apolog. Cp. Plut., Numa 4, 6 πνεῦμα θεοῦ, capable of begetting children; s. παρθένος a) τὸ πν. τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:11b, 14; 3:16; 6:11; 1J 4:2a (Just., D. 49, 3; Tat. 13, 3; Ath. 22, 3). τὸ τοῦ θεοῦ πν. 1 Pt 4:14 (Just., A I, 60, 6). τὸ πν. τὸ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:12b. τὸ πν. κυρίου Ac 5:9; B 6:14; B 9:2 (cp. Mel., P. 32, 222). τὸ πνεῦμά μου or αὐτοῦ: Mt 12:18 (Is 42:1); Ac 2:17f (Jo 3:1f.—Cp. 1QS 4:21); 1 Cor 2:10a v.l.; Eph 3:16; 1 Th 4:8 (where τὸ ἅγιον is added); 1J 4:13.—τὸ πν. τοῦ πατρὸς ὑμῶν Mt 10:20. τὸ πν. τοῦ ἐγείραντος τὸν Ἰησοῦν Ro 8:11a.—Without the art. πν. θεοῦ (JosAs 4:9; Tat. 15:3; Theoph. Ant. 1, 5 [p. 66, 18]) the Spirit of God Mt 3:16; 12:28; Ro 8:9b, 14, 19; 1 Cor 7:40; 12:3a; 2 Cor 3:3 (πν. θεοῦ ζῶντος); Phil 3:3. πν. κυρίου Lk 4:18 (Is 61:1); Ac 8:39 (like J 3:8; 20:22; Ac 2:4, this pass. belongs on the borderline betw. the mngs. ‘wind’ and ‘spirit’; cp. Diod S 3, 60, 3 Ἕσπερον ἐξαίφνης ὑπὸ πνευμάτων συναρπαγέντα μεγάλων ἄφαντον γενέσθαι ‘Hesperus [a son of Atlas] was suddenly snatched by strong winds and vanished fr. sight’. S. HLeisegang, Der Hl. Geist I 1, 1919, 19ff; OCullmann, TZ. 4, ’48, 364); 1 Cl 21:2.
    ⓑ the Spirit of Christ, of the Lord (=Christ) etc. τὸ πν. Ἰησοῦ Ac 16:7. τὸ πν. Χριστοῦ AcPlCor 2:32. τὸ ἐν αὐτοῖς πν. Χριστοῦ 1 Pt 1:11. πν. Χριστοῦ Ro 8:9c. πν. τοῦ Χριστοῦ AcPl Ha 8, 18. ἀπὸ τοῦ πν. τοῦ χριστοῦ AcPlCor 2:10. τὸ πν. Ἰης. Χριστοῦ Phil 1:19. τὸ πν. κυρίου 2 Cor 3:17b (JHermann, Kyrios und Pneuma, ’61). τὸ πν. τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ (=θεοῦ) Gal 4:6. As possessor of the divine Spirit, and at the same time controlling its distribution among humans, Christ is called κύριος πνεύματος Lord of the Spirit 2 Cor 3:18 (s. Windisch ad loc.); but many prefer to transl. from the Lord who is the Spirit.—CMoule, OCullmann Festschr., ’72, 231–37.
    ⓒ Because of its heavenly origin and nature this Spirit is called (the) Holy Spirit (cp. PGM 4, 510 ἵνα πνεύσῃ ἐν ἐμοὶ τὸ ἱερὸν πνεῦμα.—Neither Philo nor Josephus called the Spirit πν. ἅγιον; the former used θεῖον or θεοῦ πν., the latter πν. θεῖον: Ant. 4, 118; 8, 408; 10, 239; but ἅγιον πνεῦμα Orig. C. Cels 1, 40, 16).
    α. w. the art. τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον (Is 63:10f; Ps 50:13; 142:10 v.l.; cp. Sus 45 Theod.; TestAbr A 4 p. 81, 10 [Stone p. 10]; JosAs 8:11 [codd. ADE]; AscIs 3, 15, 26; Just., D. 36, 6 al.) Mt 12:32 = Mk 3:29 = Lk 12:10 (τὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα; on the ‘sin against the Holy Spirit’ s. HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 96–112; AFridrichsen, Le péché contre le Saint-Esprit: RHPR 3, 1923, 367–72). Mk 12:36; 13:11; Lk 2:26; 3:22; 10:21; J 14:26; Ac 1:16; 2:33; 5:3, 32; 7:51; 8:18 v.l.; 10:44, 47; 11:15; 13:2; 15:8, 28; 19:6; 20:23, 28; 21:11; 28:25; Eph 1:13 (τὸ πν. τῆς ἐπαγγελίας τὸ ἅγιον); 4:30 (τὸ πν. τὸ ἅγιον τοῦ θεοῦ); Hb 3:7; 9:8; 10:15; 1 Cl 13:1; 16:2; 18:11 (Ps 50:13); 22:1; IEph 9:1; Hs 5, 5, 2; 5, 6, 5–7 (on the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Son in Hermas s. ALink, Christi Person u. Werk im Hirten des Hermas 1886; JvWalter, ZNW 14, 1913, 133–44; MDibelius, Hdb. exc. following Hs 5, 6, 8 p. 572–76).—τὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα (Wsd 9:17; OdeSol 11:2; TestJob 51:2; ApcEsdr 7:16; Just. D. 25, 1 al.) Mt 28:19; Lk 12:10 (s. above), 12; Ac 1:8; 2:38 (epexegetic gen.); 4:31; 9:31; 10:45; 13:4; 16:6; 1 Cor 6:19; 2 Cor 13:13; 1J 5:7 v.l. (on the Comma Johanneum s. λόγο 3); GJs 24:4 (s. χρηματίζω 1bα). As the mother of Jesus GHb 20, 61 (HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion 1922, 64ff; SHirsch, D. Vorstellg. v. e. weibl. πνεῦμα ἅγ. im NT u. in d. ältesten christl. Lit. 1927. Also WBousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis 1907, 9ff).
    β. without the art. (s. B-D-F §257, 2; Rob. 761; 795) πνεῦμα ἅγιον (PGM 3, 289; Da 5:12 LXX; PsSol 17:37; AssMos Fgm. b; Just., D. 4, 1 al.; Ath. 24, 1. S. also Da Theod. 4:8, 9, 18 θεοῦ πνεῦμα ἅγιον or πνεῦμα θεοῦ ἅγιον) Mk 1:8; Lk 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:25; 4:1; 11:13; J 20:22 (Cassien, La pentecôte johannique [J 20:19–23] ’39.—See also 1QS 4:20f); Ac 2:4a; 4:8; 7:55; 8:15, 17, 19; 9:17; 10:38; 11:24; 13:9; 19:2ab; Hb 2:4; 6:4; 1 Pt 1:12 v.l.; 1 Cl 2:2; AcPl 6:18; 9:4 (restored after Aa I 110, 11); AcPlCor 2:5.—So oft. in combination w. a prep.: διὰ πνεύματος ἁγίου Ac 1:2; 4:25; Ro 5:5; 2 Ti 1:14; 1 Cl 8:1 (cp. διὰ πν. αἰωνίου Hb 9:14). διὰ φωνῆς πν. ἁγίου AcPl Ha 11, 6. ἐκ πνεύματος ἁγίου (Eus., PE 3, 12, 3 of the Egyptians: ἐκ τ. πνεύματος οἴονται συλλαμβάνειν τὸν γῦπα. Here πνεῦμα= ‘wind’; s. Horapollo 1, 11 p. 14f. The same of other birds since Aristot.—On the neut. πνεῦμα as a masc. principle cp. Aristoxenus, Fgm. 13 of the two original principles: πατέρα μὲν φῶς, μητέρα δὲ σκότος) Mt 1:18, 20; IEph 18:2; GJs 14:2; 19:1 (pap). ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ (PsSol 17:37; ApcZeph; Ar. 15, 1) Mt 3:11; Mk 1:8 v.l.; Lk 3:16; J 1:33b; Ac 1:5 (cp. 1QS 3:7f); 11:16; Ro 9:1; 14:17; 15:16; 1 Cor 12:3b; 2 Cor 6:6; 1 Th 1:5; 1 Pt 1:12 (without ἐν v.l.); Jd 20. ὑπὸ πνεύματος ἁγίου 2 Pt 1:21. Cp. ἐν δυνάμει πνεύματος ἁγίου Ro 15:13, 19 v.l. (for πνεύματος θεοῦ). μετὰ χαρᾶς πνεύματος ἁγίου 1 Th 1:6. διὰ ἀνακαινώσεως πνεύματος ἁγίου Tit 3:5.
    ⓓ abs.
    α. w. the art. τὸ πνεῦμα. In this connection the art. is perh. used anaphorically at times, w. the second mention of a word (s. B-D-F §252; Rob. 762); perh. Mt 12:31 (looking back to vs. 28 πν. θεοῦ); Mk 1:10, 12 (cp. vs. 8 πν. ἅγιον); Lk 4:1b, 14 (cp. vs. 1a); Ac 2:4b (cp. vs. 4a).—As a rule it is not possible to assume that anaphora is present: Mt 4:1; J 1:32, 33a; 3:6a, 8b (in wordplay), 34; 7:39a; Ac 8:29; 10:19; 11:12, 28; 19:1 D; 20:3 D, 22; 21:4; Ro 8:23 (ἀπαρχή 1bβ; 2), 26a, 27; 12:11; 15:30; 2 Cor 1:22 and 5:5 (KErlemann, ZNW 83, ’92, 202–23, and s. ἀρραβών); 12:18 (τῷ αὐτῷ πν.); Gal 3:2, 5, 14 (ἐπαγγελία 1bβ); Eph 4:3 (gen. of the author); 6:17 (perh. epexegetic gen.); 1 Ti 4:1a; Js 4:5; 1J 3:24; 5:6ab (some mss. add καὶ πνεύματος to the words διʼ ὕδατος κ. αἵματος at the beg. of the verse; this is approved by HvSoden, Moffatt, Vogels, Merk, and w. reservations by CDodd, The Joh. Epistles ’46, TManson, JTS 48, ’47, 25–33), vs. 8; Rv 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; 14:13; 22:17; B 19:2, B 7= D 4:10 (s. ἐτοιμάζω b). ἐν τῷ πνεύματι (led) by the Spirit Lk 2:27.—Paul links this Spirit of God, known to every Christian, with Christ as liberating agent in contrast to legal constraint ὁ κύριος τὸ πνεῦμα ἐστιν the Lord means Spirit 2 Cor 3:17a (UHolzmeister, 2 Cor 3:17 Dominus autem Spiritus est 1908; JNisius, Zur Erklärung v. 2 Cor 3:16ff: ZKT 40, 1916, 617–75; JKögel, Ὁ κύριος τὸ πνεῦμά ἐστιν: ASchlatter Festschr. 1922, 35–46; C Guignebert, Congr. d’Hist. du Christ. II 1928, 7–22; EFuchs, Christus u. d. Geist b. Pls ’32; HHughes, ET 45, ’34, 235f; CLattey, Verb. Dom. 20, ’40, 187–89; DGriffiths ET 55, ’43, 81–83; HIngo, Kyrios und Pneuma, ’61 [Paul]; JDunn, JTS 21, ’70, 309–20).
    β. without the art. πνεῦμα B 1:3. κοινωνία πνεύματος Phil 2:1 (κοινωνία 1 and 2). πνεύματι in the Spirit or through the Spirit Gal 3:3; 5:5, 16, 18; 1 Pt 4:6. εἰ ζῶμεν πνεύματι, πνεύματι καὶ στοιχῶμεν if we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit Gal 5:25. Freq. used w. a prep.: διὰ πνεύματος 1 Pt 1:22 v.l. ἐξ (ὕδατος καὶ) πνεύματος J 3:5. ἐν πνεύματι in, by, through the Spirit Mt 22:43; Eph 2:22; 3:5; 5:18; 6:18; Col 1:8 (ἀγάπη ἐν πνεύματι love called forth by the Spirit); B 9:7. κατὰ πνεῦμα Ro 8:4f; Gal 4:29. ἐν ἁγιασμῷ πνεύματος 2 Th 2:13; 1 Pt 1:2 (s. ἁγιασμός).—In neg. expressions: οὔπω ἧν πνεῦμα the Spirit had not yet come J 7:39b. ψυχικοὶ πνεῦμα μὴ ἔχοντες worldly people, who do not have the Spirit Jd 19.—ἓν πνεῦμα one and the same Spirit 1 Cor 12:13; Eph 2:18; 4:4; one (in) Spirit 1 Cor 6:17.
    ⓔ The Spirit is more closely defined by a gen. of thing: τὸ πν. τῆς ἀληθείας (TestJud 20:5) J 14:17; 15:26; 16:13 (in these three places the Spirit of Truth is the Paraclete promised by Jesus upon his departure); 1J 4:6 (opp. τὸ πνεῦμα τῆς πλάνης, as TestJud 20:1; PsSol 8:14 πλ. πλανήσεως; Just., D. 7, 3 πλάνου καὶ ἀκαθάρτου πνεύματος; cp. 1QS 4:23); τὸ τῆς δόξης πν. 1 Pt 4:14. τὸ πν. τῆς ζωῆς the Spirit of life Ro 8:2. το πν. τῆς πίστεως 2 Cor 4:13. πν. σοφίας καὶ ἀποκαλύψεως Eph 1:17 (cp. Just., D. 87, 4). πν. υἱοθεσίας Ro 8:15b (opp. πν. δουλείας vs. 15a). πν. δυνάμεως AcPl Ha 8, 25. πν. δυνάμεως καὶ ἀγάπης καὶ σωφρονισμοῦ 2 Ti 1:7 (opp. πν. δειλίας). τὸ πν. τῆς χάριτος (s. TestJud 24:2) Hb 10:29 (Zech 12:10); cp. 1 Cl 46:6.
    ⓕ Of Christ ‘it is written’ in Scripture: (ἐγένετο) ὁ ἔσχατος Ἀδὰμ εἰς πνεῦμα ζῳοποιοῦν 1 Cor 15:45. The scripture pass. upon which the first part of this verse is based is Gen 2:7, where Wsd 15:11 also substitutes the words πνεῦμα ζωτικόν for πνοὴν ζωῆς (cp. Just., D. 6, 2). On the other hand, s. Philo, Leg. All. 1, 42 and s. the lit. s.v. Ἀδάμ ad loc.
    ⓖ The (divine) Pneuma stands in contrast to everything that characterizes this age or the finite world gener.: οὐ τὸ πν. τοῦ κόσμου ἀλλὰ τὸ πν. τὸ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ 1 Cor 2:12; cp. Eph 2:2 and 1 Ti 4:1ab.
    α. in contrast to σάρξ, which is more closely connected w. sin than any other earthly material (Just., D. 135, 6): J 3:6; Ro 8:4–6, 9a, 13; Gal 3:3; 5:17ab; 6:8. Cp. B 10:9. πᾶσα ἐπιθυμία κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματος στρατεύεται Pol 5:3.
    β. in contrast to σῶμα (=σάρξ) Ro 8:10 and to σάρξ (=σῶμα, as many hold) J 6:63a (for τὸ πν. ἐστιν τὸ ζῳοποιοῦν cp. Philo, Op. Mund. 30; Herm. Wr. in Cyrill., C. Jul. I 556c=542, 24 Sc. the pneuma τὰ πάντα ζῳοποιεῖ καὶ τρέφει. S. also f above). Cp. Ro 8:11b.
    γ. in contrast to γράμμα, which is the characteristic quality of God’s older declaration of the divine will in the law: Ro 2:29; 7:6; 2 Cor 3:6ab, 8 (cp. vs. 7).
    δ. in contrast to the wisdom of humans 1 Cor 2:13.
    ⑥ the Spirit of God as exhibited in the character or activity of God’s people or selected agents, Spirit, spirit (s. HPreisker, Geist u. Leben ’33).
    ⓐ πνεῦμα is accompanied by another noun, which characterizes the working of the Spirit more definitely: πνεῦμα καὶ δύναμις spirit and power Lk 1:17; 1 Cor 2:4. Cp. Ac 10:38; 1 Th 1:5. πνεῦμα καὶ ζωή J 6:63b. πνεῦμα κ. σοφία Ac 6:3; cp. vs. 10 (cp. TestReub 2:6 πνεῦμα λαλίας). πίστις κ. πνεῦμα ἅγιον 6:5 (cp. Just., D. 135, 6). χαρὰ καὶ πνεῦμα ἅγ. 13:52.
    ⓑ Unless frustrated by humans in their natural condition, the Spirit of God produces a spiritual type of conduct Gal 5:16, 25 and produces the καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματος vs. 22 (s. Vögtle under πλεονεξία).
    ⓒ The Spirit inspires certain people of God B 12:2; B 13:5, above all, in their capacity as proclaimers of a divine revelation (Strabo 9, 3, 5 the πνεῦμα ἐνθουσιαστικόν, that inspired the Pythia; Περὶ ὕψους 13, 2; 33, 5 of the divine πν. that impels prophets and poets to express themselves; schol. on Pla. 856e of a μάντις: ἄνωθεν λαμβάνειν τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ πληροῦσθαι τοῦ θεοῦ; Aristobulus in Eus., PE 8, 10, 4 [=Fgm. 2, 4 p. 136 Holladay] τὸ θεῖον πν., καθʼ ὸ̔ καὶ προφήτης ἀνακεκήρυκται ‘[Moses possessed] the Divine Spirit with the result that he was proclaimed a prophet’; AscIs 1:7 τὸ πν. τὸ λαλοῦν ἐν ἐμοί; AssMos Fgm. f εἶδεν πνεύματι ἐπαρθείς; Just., A I, 38, 1 al.; Ath. 10, 3 τὸ προφητικὸν πν. Cp. Marinus, Vi. Procli 23 of Proclus: οὐ γὰρ ἄνευ θείας ἐπινοίας … διαλέγεσθαι; Orig., C. Cels. 3, 28, 23). προφητεία came into being only as ὑπὸ πνεύματος ἁγίου φερόμενοι ἐλάλησαν ἀπὸ θεοῦ ἄνθρωποι 2 Pt 1:21; cp. Ac 15:29 v.l.; cp. 1 Cl 8:1. David Mt 22:43; Mk 12:36; cp. Ac 1:16; 4:25. Isaiah Ac 28:25. Moses B 10:2, B 9; the Spirit was also active in giving the tables of the law to Moses 14:2. Christ himself spoke in the OT διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου 1 Cl 22:1. The ἱεραὶ γραφαί are called αἱ διὰ τοῦ πν. τοῦ ἁγίου 45:2.—The Christian prophet Agabus also ἐσήμαινεν διὰ τοῦ πν. Ac 11:28; cp. Ac 21:11. Likew. Ign. IPhld 7:2. In general the Spirit reveals the most profound secrets to those who believe 1 Cor 2:10ab.—1 Cl claims to be written διὰ τοῦ ἁγ. πν. 63:2. On Ac 19:21 s. 3b.
    ⓓ The Spirit of God, being one, shows the variety and richness of its life in the different kinds of spiritual gifts which are granted to certain Christians 1 Cor 12:4, 7, 11; cp. vs. 13ab.—Vss. 8–10 enumerate the individual gifts of the Spirit, using various prepositions: διὰ τοὺ πν. vs. 8a; κατὰ τὸ πν. vs. 8b; ἐν τῷ πν. vs. 9ab. τὸ πν. μὴ σβέννυτε do not quench the Spirit 1 Th 5:19 refers to the gift of prophecy, acc. to vs. 20.—The use of the pl. πνεύματα is explained in 1 Cor 14:12 by the varied nature of the Spirit’s working; in vs. 32 by the number of persons who possess the prophetic spirit; on the latter s. Rv 22:6 and 19:10.
    ⓔ One special type of spiritual gift is represented by ecstatic speaking. Of those who ‘speak in tongues’ that no earthly person can understand: πνεύματι λαλεῖ μυστήρια expresses secret things in a spiritual way 1 Cor 14:2. Cp. vss. 14–16 and s. νοῦς 1b. τὸ πνεῦμα ὑπερεντυγχάνει στεναγμοῖς ἀλαλήτοις the Spirit pleads in our behalf with groans beyond words Ro 8:26b. Of speech that is ecstatic, but expressed in words that can be understood λαλεῖν ἐν πνεύματι D 11:7, 8; cp. vs. 9 (on the subject-matter 1 Cor 12:3; Jos., Ant. 4, 118f; TestJob 43:2 ἀναλαβὼν Ἐλιφᾶς πν. εἶπεν ὕμνον). Of the state of mind of the seer of the Apocalypse: ἐν πνεύματι Rv 17:3; 21:10; γενέσθαι ἐν πν. 1:10; 4:2 (s. γίνομαι 5c, ἐν 4c and EMoering, StKr 92, 1920, 148–54; RJeske, NTS 31, ’85, 452–66); AcPl Ha 6, 27. On the Spirit at Pentecost Ac 2:4 s. KLake: Beginn. I 5, ’33, 111–21. κατασταλέντος τοῦ πν. τοῦ ἐν Μύρτῃ when the Spirit (of prophecy) that was in Myrta ceased speaking AcPl Ha 7, 9.
    ⓕ The Spirit leads and directs Christian missionaries in their journeys (Aelian, NA 11, 16 the young women are led blindfolded to the cave of the holy serpent; they are guided by a πνεῦμα θεῖον) Ac 16:6, 7 (by dreams, among other methods; cp. vs. 9f and s. Marinus, Vi. Procli 27: Proclus ἔφασκεν προθυμηθῆναι μὲν πολλάκις γράψαι, κωλυθῆναι δὲ ἐναργῶς ἔκ τινων ἐνυπνίων). In Ac 16:6–7 τὸ ἅγιον πν. and τὸ πν. Ἰησοῦ are distinguished.
    ⑦ an activating spirit that is not fr. God, spirit: πν. ἔτερον a different (kind of) spirit 2 Cor 11:4. Cp. 2 Th 2:2; 1J 4:1–3. Because there are persons activated by such spirits, it is necessary to test the var. kinds of spirits (the same problem Artem. 3, 20 περὶ διαφορᾶς μάντεων, οἷς δεῖ προσέχειν καὶ οἷς μή) 1 Cor 12:10; 1J 4:1b. ὁ διάβολος πληροῖ αὐτὸν αὐτοῦ πν. Hm 11:3. Also οὐκ οἴδατε ποίου πνεύματός ἐστε Lk 9:55 v.l. distinguishes betw. the spirit shown by Jesus’ disciples, and another kind of spirit.—Even more rarely a spirit divinely given that is not God’s own; so (in a quot. fr. Is 29:10) a πνεῦμα κατανύξεως Ro 11:8.
    ⑧ an independent transcendent personality, the Spirit, which appears in formulas that became more and more fixed and distinct (cp. Ath. 12, 2; Hippol., Ref. 7, 26, 2.—Ps.-Lucian, Philopatr. 12 θεόν, υἱόν πατρός, πνεῦμα ἐκ πατρὸς ἐκπορευόμενον ἓν ἐκ τριῶν καὶ ἐξ ἑνὸς τρία, ταῦτα νόμιζε Ζῆνα, τόνδʼ ἡγοῦ θεόν=‘God, son of the father, spirit proceeding from the father, one from three and three from one, consider these as Zeus, think of this one as God’. The entire context bears a Christian impress.—As Aion in gnostic speculation Iren. 1, 2, 5 [Harv. I 21, 2]): βαπτίζοντες αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ πατρὸς καὶ τοῦ υἱοῦ καὶ τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος Mt 28:19 (on the text s. βαπτίζω 2c; on the subject-matter GWalther, Die Entstehung des Taufsymbols aus dem Taufritus: StKr 95, 1924, 256ff); D 7:1, 3. Cp. 2 Cor 13:13; 1 Cl 58:2; IEph 9:1; IMg 13:1b, 2; MPol 14:3; 22:1, 3; Epil Mosq 5. On this s. HUsener, Dreiheit: RhM 58, 1903, 1ff; 161ff; 321ff; esp. 36ff; EvDobschütz, Zwei-u. dreigliedrige Formeln: JBL 50, ’31, 116–47 (also Heinrici Festschr. 1914, 92–100); Norden, Agn. Th. 228ff; JMainz, Die Bed. der Dreizahl im Judentum 1922; Clemen2 125–28; NSöderblom, Vater, Sohn u. Geist 1909; DNielsen, Der dreieinige Gott I 1922; GKrüger, Das Dogma v. der Dreieinigkeit 1905, 46ff; AHarnack, Entstehung u. Entwicklung der Kirchenverfassung 1910, 187ff; JHaussleiter, Trinitarischer Glaube u. Christusbekenntnis in der alten Kirche: BFCT XXV 4, 1920; JLebreton, Histoire du dogme de la Trinité I: Les origines6 1927; RBlümel, Pls u. d. dreieinige Gott 1929.—On the whole word FRüsche, D. Seelenpneuma ’33; HLeisegang, Der Hl. Geist I 1, 1919; EBurton, ICC Gal 1921, 486–95; PVolz, Der Geist Gottes u. d. verwandten Erscheinungen im AT 1910; JHehn, Zum Problem des Geistes im alten Orient u. im AT: ZAW n.s. 2, 1925, 210–25; SLinder, Studier till Gamla Testamentets föreställningar om anden 1926; AMarmorstein, Der Hl. Geist in der rabb. Legende: ARW 28, 1930, 286–303; NSnaith, The Distinctive Ideas of the OT ’46, 229–37; FDillistone, Bibl. Doctrine of the Holy Spirit: Theology Today 3, ’46/47, 486–97; TNicklin, Gospel Gleanings ’50, 341–46; ESchweizer, CDodd Festschr., ’56, 482–508; DLys, Rûach, Le Souffle dans l’AT, ’62; DHill, Gk. Words and Hebr. Mngs. ’67, 202–93.—HGunkel, Die Wirkungen des Hl. Geistes2 1899; HWeinel, Die Wirkungen des Geistes u. der Geister im nachap. Zeitalter 1899; EWinstanley, The Spirit in the NT 1908; HSwete, The Holy Spirit in the NT 1909, The Holy Spirit in the Ancient Church 1912; EScott, The Spirit in the NT 1923; FBüchsel, Der Geist Gottes im NT 1926; EvDobschütz, Der Geistbesitz des Christen im Urchristentum: Monatsschr. für Pastoral-theol. 20, 1924, 228ff; FBadcock, ‘The Spirit’ and Spirit in the NT: ET 45, ’34, 218–21; RBultmann, Theologie des NT ’48, 151–62 (Eng. tr. KGrobel, ’51, I 153–64); ESchweizer, Geist u. Gemeinde im NT ’52, Int 6, ’52, 259–78.—WTosetti, Der Hl. Geist als göttliche Pers. in den Evangelien 1918; HLeisegang, Pneuma Hagion. Der Ursprung des Geistbegriffs der Syn. Ev. aus der griech. Mystik 1922; AFrövig, Das Sendungsbewusstsein Jesu u. der Geist 1924; HWindisch, Jes. u. d. Geist nach Syn. Überl.: Studies in Early Christianity, presented to FCPorter and BWBacon 1928, 209–36; FSynge, The Holy Spirit in the Gospels and Acts: CQR 120, ’35, 205–17; CBarrett, The Holy Spirit and the Gospel Trad. ’47.—ESokolowski, Die Begriffe Geist u. Leben bei Pls 1903; KDeissner, Auferstehungshoffnung u. Pneumagedanke bei Pls 1912; GVos, The Eschatological Aspect of the Pauline Conception of the Spirit: Bibl. and Theol. Studies by the Faculty of Princeton Theol. Sem. 1912, 209–59; HBertrams, Das Wesen des Geistes nach d. Anschauung des Ap. Pls 1913; WReinhard, Das Wirken des Hl. Geistes im Menschen nach den Briefen des Ap. Pls 1918; HHoyle, The Holy Spirit in St. Paul 1928; PGächter, Z. Pneumabegriff des hl. Pls: ZKT 53, 1929, 345–408; ASchweitzer, D. Mystik des Ap. Pls 1930, 159–74 al. [Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, tr. WMontgomery ’31, 160–76 al.]; E-BAllo, RB 43, ’34, 321–46 [1 Cor]; Ltzm., Hdb. exc. after Ro 8:11; Synge [s. above], CQR 119, ’35, 79–93 [Pauline epp.]; NWaaning, Onderzoek naar het gebruik van πνεῦμα bij Pls, diss. Amsterd. ’39; RJewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms, ’71, 167–200.—HvBaer, Der Hl. Geist in den Lukasschriften 1926; MGoguel, La Notion joh. de l’Esprit 1902; JSimpson, The Holy Spirit in the Fourth Gospel: Exp., 9th ser., 4, 1925, 292–99; HWindisch, Jes. u. d. Geist im J.: Amicitiae Corolla (RHarris Festschr.) ’33, 303–18; WLofthouse, The Holy Spirit in Ac and J: ET 52, ’40/41, 334–36; CBarrett, The Holy Spirit in the Fourth Gospel: JTS 1 n.s., ’50, 1–15; FCrump, Pneuma in the Gospels, diss. Catholic Univ. of America, ’54; GLampe, Studies in the Gospels (RHLightfoot memorial vol.) ’55, 159–200; NHamilton, The Holy Spirit and Eschatology in Paul, ’57; WDavies, Paul and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Flesh and Spirit: The Scrolls and the NT, ed. KStendahl, ’57, 157–82.—GJohnston, ‘Spirit’ and ‘Holy Spirit’ in the Qumran Lit.: NT Sidelights (ACPurdy Festschr.) ’60, 27–42; JPryke, ‘Spirit’ and ‘Flesh’ in Qumran and NT, RevQ 5, ’65, 346–60; HBraun, Qumran und d. NT II, ’66, 150–64; DHill, Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings, ’67, 202–93; WBieder, Pneumatolog. Aspekte im Hb, OCullmann Festschr. ’72, 251–59; KEasley, The Pauline Usage of πνεύματι as a Reference to the Spirit of God: JETS 27, ’84, 299–313 (statistics).—B. 260; 1087. Pauly-W. XIV 387–412. BHHW I 534–37. Schmidt, Syn. II 218–50. New Docs 4, 38f. DELG s.v. πνέω. M-M. Dict. de la Bible XI 126–398. EDNT. TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > πνεῦμα

  • 55 Knowledge

       It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)
       It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.
       But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)
       Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).
       Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])
       Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....
       This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)
       Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)
       Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)
       "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.
       Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge

  • 56 zihin

    ",-hni 1. mind, intellect. 2. memory, mind. 3. comprehension, understanding, capacity or power to comprehend. - açıklığı mental alertness. -i açılmak to feel mentally alert. -ini açmak /ın/ to make (one) feel mentally alert, stimulate (one´s) powers of thought. -ini bozmak /la/ to be obsessed by, be too concerned with, be hipped on. -ini bulandırmak /ın/ to make (one) suspicious, make (one) smell a rat. - bulanıklığı psych. mental confusion, obnubilation of the intellect. -i bulanmak to get confused, get muddled up. -ini çelmek /ın/ 1. to bring (someone) under one´s sway, mesmerize. 2. to confuse, cause (someone) to get muddled up, muddle (someone) up. 3. to seduce or corrupt (someone). -i dağılmak for one´s mind to wander. -ine dokunmak /ın/ to confuse (someone) utterly. -i durmak for one´s brain to stop working; (for someone) to be unable to think clearly, be mentally fatigued. - gücü mental capacity. - hesabı mental arithmetic, mental calculation. -i karışmak to get confused, get muddled up. -ini karıştırmak /ın/ to confuse, muddle (someone) up. -ini kurcalamak 1. /ın/ (for something) to keep popping into (one´s) mind, recur to (one) repeatedly. 2. to think hard; to try hard to recall something; to try hard to understand something. -ini oynatmak to go crazy, go off one´s nut. -i saplanmak /a/ to become obsessed by. -i takılmak /a/ to be unable to put (something) out of (one´s) mind. -ine takılmak for a thought to keep recurring to (one). - yorgunluğu mental fatigue. - yormak to ponder, think hard, rack one´s brains. "

    Saja Türkçe - İngilizce Sözlük > zihin

  • 57 Ilgner, Karl

    SUBJECT AREA: Electricity
    [br]
    b. 27 July 1862 Neisse, Upper Silesia (now Nysa, Poland)
    d. 18 January 1921 Berthelsdorf, Silesia
    [br]
    German electrical engineer, inventor of a transformer for electromotors.
    [br]
    Ilgner graduated from the Gewerbeakademie (the forerunner of the Technical University) in Berlin. As the representative of an electric manufacturing company in Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) from 1897, he was confronted with the fact that there were no appropriate drives for hoisting-engines or rolling-plants in steelworks. Two problems prevented the use of high-capacity electric motors in the mining as well as in the iron and steel industry: the reactions of the motors on the circuit at the peak point of stress concentration; and the complicated handling of the control system which raised the risks regarding safety. Having previously been head of the department of electrical power transmission in Hannover, he was concerned with the development of low-speed direct-current motors powered by gas engines.
    It was Harry Ward Leonard's switchgear for direct-current motors (USA, 1891) that permitted sudden and exact changes in the speed and direction of rotation without causing power loss, as demonstrated in the driving of a rolling sidewalk at the Paris World Fair of 1900. Ilgner connected this switchgear to a large and heavy flywheel which accumulated the kinetic energy from the circuit in order to compensate shock loads. With this combination, electric motors did not need special circuits, which were still weak, because they were working continuously and were regulated individually, so that they could be used for driving hoisting-engines in mines, rolling-plants in steelworks or machinery for producing tools and paper. Ilgner thus made a notable advance in the general progress of electrification.
    His transformer for hoisting-engines was patented in 1901 and was commercially used inter alia by Siemens \& Halske of Berlin. Their first electrical hoisting-engine for the Zollern II/IV mine in Dortmund gained international reputation at the Düsseldorf exhibition of 1902, and is still preserved in situ in the original machine hall of the mine, which is now a national monument in Germany. Ilgner thereafter worked with several companies to pursue his conception, became a consulting engineer in Vienna and Breslau and had a government post after the First World War in Brussels and Berlin until he retired for health reasons in 1919.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1901, DRP no. 138, 387 1903, "Der elektrische Antrieb von Reversier-Walzenstraßen", Stahl und Eisen 23:769– 71.
    Further Reading
    W.Kroker, "Karl Ilgner", Neue Deutsche Biographie, Vol. X, pp. 134–5. W.Philippi, 1924, Elektrizität im Bergbau, Leipzig (a general account).
    K.Warmbold, 1925, "Der Ilgner-Umformer in Förderanlagen", Kohle und Erz 22:1031–36 (a detailed description).
    WK

    Biographical history of technology > Ilgner, Karl

  • 58 Swan, Sir Joseph Wilson

    [br]
    b. 31 October 1828 Sunderland, England
    d. 27 May 1914 Warlingham, Surrey, England
    [br]
    English chemist, inventor in Britain of the incandescent electric lamp and of photographic processes.
    [br]
    At the age of 14 Swan was apprenticed to a Sunderland firm of druggists, later joining John Mawson who had opened a pharmacy in Newcastle. While in Sunderland Swan attended lectures at the Athenaeum, at one of which W.E. Staite exhibited electric-arc and incandescent lighting. The impression made on Swan prompted him to conduct experiments that led to his demonstration of a practical working lamp in 1879. As early as 1848 he was experimenting with carbon as a lamp filament, and by 1869 he had mounted a strip of carbon in a vessel exhausted of air as completely as was then possible; however, because of residual air, the filament quickly failed.
    Discouraged by the cost of current from primary batteries and the difficulty of achieving a good vacuum, Swan began to devote much of his attention to photography. With Mawson's support the pharmacy was expanded to include a photographic business. Swan's interest in making permanent photographic records led him to patent the carbon process in 1864 and he discovered how to make a sensitive dry plate in place of the inconvenient wet collodian process hitherto in use. He followed this success with the invention of bromide paper, the subject of a British patent in 1879.
    Swan resumed his interest in electric lighting. Sprengel's invention of the mercury pump in 1865 provided Swan with the means of obtaining the high vacuum he needed to produce a satisfactory lamp. Swan adopted a technique which was to become an essential feature in vacuum physics: continuing to heat the filament during the exhaustion process allowed the removal of absorbed gases. The inventions of Gramme, Siemens and Brush provided the source of electrical power at reasonable cost needed to make the incandescent lamp of practical service. Swan exhibited his lamp at a meeting in December 1878 of the Newcastle Chemical Society and again the following year before an audience of 700 at the Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society. Swan's failure to patent his invention immediately was a tactical error as in November 1879 Edison was granted a British patent for his original lamp, which, however, did not go into production. Parchmentized thread was used in Swan's first commercial lamps, a material soon superseded by the regenerated cellulose filament that he developed. The cellulose filament was made by extruding a solution of nitro-cellulose in acetic acid through a die under pressure into a coagulating fluid, and was used until the ultimate obsolescence of the carbon-filament lamp. Regenerated cellulose became the first synthetic fibre, the further development and exploitation of which he left to others, the patent rights for the process being sold to Courtaulds.
    Swan also devised a modification of Planté's secondary battery in which the active material was compressed into a cellular lead plate. This has remained the central principle of all improvements in secondary cells, greatly increasing the storage capacity for a given weight.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1904. FRS 1894. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1898. First President, Faraday Society 1904. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1904. Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur 1881.
    Bibliography
    2 January 1880, British patent no. 18 (incandescent electric lamp).
    24 May 1881, British patent no. 2,272 (improved plates for the Planté cell).
    1898, "The rise and progress of the electrochemical industries", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 27:8–33 (Swan's Presidential Address to the Institution of Electrical Engineers).
    Further Reading
    M.E.Swan and K.R.Swan, 1968, Sir Joseph Wilson Swan F.R.S., Newcastle upon Tyne (a detailed account).
    R.C.Chirnside, 1979, "Sir Joseph Swan and the invention of the electric lamp", IEE
    Electronics and Power 25:96–100 (a short, authoritative biography).
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Swan, Sir Joseph Wilson

  • 59 carico

    "compressive stress;
    Druckbelastung;
    carga de pressão"
    * * *
    (pl -chi) 1. adj loaded
    electronics charged
    caffè strong
    colore deep
    orologio wound up
    2. m load
    finance charge, expense
    law a carico di ( contro) against
    essere a carico di qualcuno be dependent on someone
    carico utile payload
    lettera f (o polizza f) di carico bill of lading
    * * *
    carico agg.
    1 loaded (with sthg.); laden (with sthg.) (anche fig.): un autocarro carico di mattoni, a lorry loaded with bricks; una nave carica di merci, a ship loaded (o laden) with goods; era carico di debiti, he was burdened (o weighed down) with debt (s) (o he was up to his ears in debt); era carico di onori, he was loaded with honours
    2 ( di caffè) strong
    3 ( di colore) deep, dark
    4 ( riempito) filled (with sthg.); full; charged (with sthg.): è carica la tua pipa?, is your pipe full?
    5 ( di arma da fuoco) loaded (with sthg.); live (attr.): fucile carico, loaded gun; è carico il tuo fucile?, is your gun loaded?; proiettile carico, live shell
    6 (elettr.) charged, live: condensatore carico, charged condenser; batteria carica, live battery
    7 ( di orologio) wound up.
    carico s.m.
    1 ( il caricare) ( veicoli) loading; ( navi) loading, lading // (comm.): polizza di carico, bill of lading; mediatore di carico, loading broker // (amm.) carico e scarico, charge and discharge
    2 (comm.) ( merce caricata) cargo, load, freight, ( solo di nave) shipload, shipment: nave da carico, cargo boat (o ship); carico pagante, paying freight; pieno carico, carico completo, full load (o cargo); carico alla rinfusa, bulk (o loose) cargo; carico utile, pay load (o live load); carico di esportazione, export cargo; carico di importazione, import cargo; carico di andata, outward cargo; carico di ritorno, return (o home) cargo; carico massimo, peak load; carico misto, mixed load (o cargo); carico sopra coperta, dead cargo; dichiarare un carico alla dogana, to declare a cargo to the customs; vendere il carico completo, to sell in bulk; la nave trasportava un carico di macchinari in Marocco, the ship was transporting a cargo of machinery to Morocco; portare un carico sulle spalle, to carry a load on one's shoulders; sbarcare un carico, to unload a cargo
    3 (fig.) burden; load; weight: un carico di preoccupazioni, di responsabilità, a burden of worries, of responsibility; un carico di botte, a load of (o a sound) thrashing; avere qlcu. a carico, to have to provide for s.o.; essere a carico di qlcu., to be dependent on s.o.; farsi carico di qlcu., qlco., to make oneself responsible for s.o., sthg.; persone a carico, dependent people (o dependants) // (trib.) carico tributario, burden of taxation (o tax burden) // (dir.) carico ipotecario, encumbrance
    4 (comm.) a carico di, charged to, to be paid by, at expense of, to be debited to: spedizione ( via mare) a carico del committente, shipping at the buyer's expense (o shipping charges to be paid by customer); a carico del destinatario, at consignee's expense; spese a carico del nostro conto, expense to be charged (o debited) to our account; segnare una somma a carico di qlcu., to debit s.o. with an amount
    5 (dir.) charge, accusation, imputation: carico pendente, pending suit // teste a carico, witness for the prosecution; processo a carico di qlcu., action against s.o.
    6 (tecn.) load: carico accidentale, live load; carico al limite di elasticità, load at elastic limit; carico di lavoro, working load; carico di rottura, ultimate (o maximum) tensile stress; carico di snervamento, yield point; carico eccentrico, eccentric load; carico mobile, live (o moving) load; carico unitario, unit load; carico variabile, variable load
    7 (elettr.) load factor: carico crescente, increasing load; carico di avviamento, starting load; carico massimo ammissibile, maximum permissible load; carico variabile, changing load
    8 (aer.) load, loading: carico alare, wing load; carico amovibile, disposable load; carico d'apertura, span loading; carico di potenza, power loading; carico di prova, proof load; carico di robustezza, ultimate load; carico totale, full load; carico utile, useful load.
    * * *
    ['kariko] carico -a, -chi, -che
    1. agg
    1)

    (veicolo) carico (di) — loaded o laden (with), full (of)

    (persona) carico di — laden with

    2) (forte: colore) strong, deep, (caffè, tè) strong
    3) (caricato: orologio) wound up, (fucile, macchina fotografica) loaded, (pipa) full, (batteria) charged, (bomba) live
    2. sm
    1) (il caricare) loading
    2) (materiale caricato) load, (su nave) freight, cargo, Comm shipment
    * * *
    I
    pl. - chi, - che ['kariko, ki, ke] aggettivo
    1) [ camion] loaded, laden (di with)
    2) fig. (oberato) burdened, weighed dow, loaded down (di with)

    carico di debiti — burdened o weighed down with debt(s)

    3) (fornito di carica) [ pistola] loaded, charged; [ orologio] wound up
    4) fis. [ pila] charged
    5) [ colore] deep, intense
    6) (forte) [caffè, tè] strong
    7) (concentrato, eccitato) psyched up, ready
    II
    pl. - chi ['kariko, ki] sostantivo maschile
    1) (caricamento) loading, lading
    2) (merci caricate) (di aereo, nave) cargo*; (di camion, treno) load
    3) (fardello) load
    5) arch. ing. el. load

    persone a carico — dir. dependent people, dependants

    testimone a carico — dir. witness for the prosecution, prosecution witness

    7) a carico di charged to, chargeable to, to be paid by

    telefonata a carico del destinatario — reverse o transferred charge call, collect call AE

    essere o vivere a carico di qcn. to depend on sb., to be dependent on o upon sb.; processo a carico di qcn. — action against sb

    •

    carico utile — aer. disposable load

    ••

    farsi carico di — to take on [ spese]

    * * *
    carico1
    pl. - chi, - che /'kariko, ki, ke/
     1 [ camion] loaded, laden (di with)
     2 fig. (oberato) burdened, weighed dow, loaded down (di with); carico di debiti burdened o weighed down with debt(s); sono carico di lavoro I'm up to my ears in work
     3 (fornito di carica) [ pistola] loaded, charged; [ orologio] wound up
     4 fis. [ pila] charged
     5 [ colore] deep, intense; rosa carico hot pink
     6 (forte) [caffè, tè] strong
     7 (concentrato, eccitato) psyched up, ready.
    ————————
    carico2
    pl. - chi /'kariko, ki/
    sostantivo m.
     1 (caricamento) loading, lading
     2 (merci caricate) (di aereo, nave) cargo*; (di camion, treno) load
     3 (fardello) load
     4 (onere) carico di lavoro workload; il carico della responsabilità the burden of responsibility
     5 arch. ing. el. load
     6 a carico avere tre figli a carico to have three dependent children; persone a carico dir. dependent people, dependants; testimone a carico dir. witness for the prosecution, prosecution witness
     7 a carico di charged to, chargeable to, to be paid by; telefonata a carico del destinatario reverse o transferred charge call, collect call AE; essere o vivere a carico di qcn. to depend on sb., to be dependent on o upon sb.; processo a carico di qcn. action against sb.
    farsi carico di to take on [ spese]; farsi carico di fare to take it upon oneself to do
    \
    carico fiscale tax expenses o burden; carico utile aer. disposable load.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > carico

  • 60 ход

    муж.
    1) только ед. motion ( движение); speed ( скорость); course перен. (развитие, течение)

    дать задний ход — to put it into reverse, to back down/off/out

    на полный ход — at full capacity (о механизме, фабрике); at its height/peak, going strong (о бизнесе, торговле)

    ход развития — process; time history

    в ходе чего-л. — during, in the course of

    гусеничный ход — caterpillar, crawler тех.

    есть на ходу — to snatch a meal/bite

    задний ход — backing, reverse; backward; reverse motion

    замедлять ход — to slow down, to reduce speed

    на полном ходу — full-pelt, in full operation

    на ходу — in motion, on the move, without stopping ( во время движения) ; in working/running order ( в рабочем состоянии); ( во время работы механизма) while running

    полный ход, полный вперед — full speed (ahead)

    прибавлять ходу, поддать ходу — to pick up speed; to step on the gas ( о водителе)

    свободный ход — free wheeling; coasting (об автомобиле)

    своим ходом — under one's own steam/power, on one's own ( двигаться); at one's own pace, (to take) its course ( развиваться)

    ход рассуждений — chain/line of argument/reasoning

    ход событий — course/march of events; trend of developments

    2) мн. ч. ходы entrance, entry ( вход); passage ( проход)

    знать все ходы и выходы — to know all the ins and outs, to be perfectly at home разг.

    - ход со двора
    - ход сообщения
    - черный ход
    3) мн. ч. ходы (в игре) move шахм.; lead, turn карт.

    ваш ход — it is your move (в шахматах); it is your lead (в картах)

    чей ход? — whose move is it? (в шахматах); who is it to lead? (в картах)

    •

    на гусеничном ходу — caterpillar-mounted, caterpillar-tracked; mounted on caterpillar tracks

    ••

    дать ход — (делу, заявлению и т.п.)

    идти в ход, идти в дело — to be put to use, to be used

    пустить в ход — (что-л.)to star, to set going, to give a start, to set in train; to get under way, to get started (о деле, предприятии); to start (up) an engine, to get running/going (о машине, механизме и т.п.); to start (up) a factory, to put a factory into operation (о фабрике и т.п.); to put smth. to use (свое обаяние и т.п.); to put forward an argument ( аргумент)

    дать ходу — разг. to take/run off, to take to one's heels ( убежать)

    дела идут полным ходом — affairs/things are in full swing

    пускать в ход все средства — to leave no stone unturned; to move heaven and earth

    этот товар в большом ходу — this article is in great demand, these goods are in great request

    - ловкий ход
    - не давать хода
    - с ходу

    Русско-английский словарь по общей лексике > ход

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