(1831-1856)

сокр. от Legal Observer

SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors

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Born in upstate New York, where his father was a small manufacturer, Edward Clark attended college at Williams and graduated in 1831. He became a lawyer in New York City and from then on lived either in the city or on his rural estate near Cooperstown in upstate New York. After a series of share manipulations, Clark acquired a one-third interest in Isaac M. Singer's company. They soon bought out one of Singer's earlier partners, G.B.Zeiber, and in 1851, under the name of I.M.Singer \& Co., they set up a permanent sewing machine business with headquarters in New York.

The success of their firm initially rested on marketing. Clark introduced door-to-door sales-people and hire-purchase for their sewing machines in 1856 ($50 cash down, or $100 with a cash payment of $5 and $3 a month thereafter). He also trained women to demonstrate to potential customers the capabilities of the Singer sewing machine. At first their sewing machines continued to be made in the traditional way, with the parts fitted together by skilled workers through hand filing and shaping so that the parts would fit only onto one machine. This resembled European practice rather than the American system of manufacture that had been pioneered in the armouries in that country. In 1856 Singer brought out their first machine intended exclusively for home use, and at the same time manufacturing capacity was improved. Through increased sales, a new factory was built in 1858–9 on Mott Street, New York, but it soon became inadequate to meet demand.

In 1863 the Singer company was incorporated as the Singer Manufacturing Co. and began to modernize its production methods with special jigs and fixtures to help ensure uniformity. More and more specialized machinery was built for making the parts. By 1880 the factory, then at Elizabethport, New Jersey, was jammed with automatic and semi-automatic machine tools. In 1882 the factory was producing sewing machines with fully interchangeable parts that did not require hand fitting in assembly. Production rose from 810 machines in 1853 to half a million in 1880. A new family model was introduced in 1881. Clark had succeeded Singer, who died in 1875, as President of the company, but he retired in 1882 after he had seen through the change to mass production.

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SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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Cyrus McCormick's father, a farmer, began to experiment unsuccessfully with a harvesting machine between 1809 and 1816. His son took up the challenge and gave his first public demonstration of his machine in 1831. It cut a 4 ft swathe, but, wanting to perfect the machine, he waited until 1834 before patenting it, by which time he felt that his invention was threatened by others of similar design. In the same year he entered an article in the Mechanics Magazine, warning competitors off his design. His main rival was Obed Hussey who contested McCormick's claim to the originality of the idea, having patented his own machine six months before McCormick.

A competition between the two machines was held in 1843, the judges favouring McCormick's, even after additional trials were conducted after objections of unfairness from Hussey. The rivalry continued over a number of years, being avidly reported in the agricultural press. The publicity did no harm to reaper sales, and McCormick sold twenty-nine machines in 1843 and fifty the following year.

As the westward settlement movement progressed, so the demand for McCormick's machine grew. In order to be more central to his markets, McCormick established himself in Chicago. In partnership with C.M.Gray he established a factory to produce 500 harvesters for the 1848 season. By means of advertising and offers of credit terms, as well as production-line assembly, McCormick was able to establish himself as sole owner and also control all production, under the one roof. By the end of the decade he dominated reaper production but other developments were to threaten this position; however, foreign markets were appearing at the same time, not least the opportunities of European sales stimulated by the Great Exhibition in 1851. In the trials arranged by the Royal Agricultural Society of England the McCormick machine significantly outperformed that of Hussey's, and as a result McCormick arranged for 500 to be made under licence in England.

In 1874 McCormick bought a half interest in the patent for a wire binder from Charles Withington, a watchmaker from Janesville, Wisconsin, and by 1885 a total of 50,000 wire binders had been built in Chicago. By 1881 McCormick was producing twine binders using Appleby's twine knotter under a licence agreement, and by 1885 the company was producing only twine binders. The McCormick Company was one of the co-founders of the International Harvester Company in 1901.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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John Urpeth Rastrick, son of an engineer, was initially articled to his father and then moved to Ketley Ironworks, Shropshire, c. 1801. In 1808 he entered into a partnership with John Hazledine at Bridgnorth, Shropshire: Hazledine and Rastrick built many steam engines to the designs of Richard Trevithick, including the demonstration locomotive Catch-Me-Who-Can. The firm also built iron bridges, notably the bridge over the River Wye at Chepstow in 1815–16.

Between 1822 and 1826 the Stratford \& Moreton Railway was built under Rastrick's direction. Malleable iron rails were laid, in one of the first instances of their use. They were supplied by James Foster of Stourbridge, with whom Rastrick went into partnership after the death of Hazledine. In 1825 Rastrick was one of a team of engineers sent by the committee of the proposed Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) to carry out trials of locomotives built by George Stephenson on the Killingworth Waggonway. Early in 1829 the directors of the L \& MR, which was by then under construction, sent Rastrick and James Walker to inspect railways in North East England and report on the relative merits of steam locomotives and fixed engines with cable haulage. They reported, rather hesitantly, in favour of the latter, particularly the reciprocal system of Benjamin Thompson. In consequence the Rainhill Trials, at which Rastrick was one of the judges, were held that October. In 1829 Rastrick constructed the Shutt End colliery railway in Worcestershire, for which Foster and Rastrick built the locomotive Agenoria; this survives in the National Railway Museum. Three similar locomotives were built to the order of Horatio Allen for export to the USA.

From then until he retired in 1847 Rastrick found ample employment surveying railways, appearing as a witness before Parliamentary committees, and supervising construction. Principally, he surveyed the southern part of the Grand Junction Railway, which was built for the most part by Joseph Locke, and the line from Manchester to Crewe which was eventually built as the Manchester \& Birmingham Railway. The London \& Brighton Railway (Croydon to Brighton) was his great achievement: built under Rastrick's supervision between 1836 and 1840, it included three long tunnels and the magnificent Ouse Viaduct. In 1845 he was Engineer to the Gravesend \& Rochester Railway, the track of which was laid through the Thames \& Medway Canal's Strood Tunnel, partly on the towpath and partly on a continuous staging over the water.

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See also: Stephenson, Robert

пол., соц. Токвиль, Алексис Клерель де (1805-1859; французский историк, социолог и политический деятель; лидер консервативной Партии порядка, министр иностранных дел (1849); в 1831-32 гг. совершил путешествие в США, результатом которого стали сочинения "Демократия в Америке" (1835), "Старый порядок и революция" (1856); осознавал неизбежность буржуазных преобразований, с либерально-консервативных позиций подверг критике буржуазные идеи свободы и равенства; отвергал необходимость Великой французской революции; считается классиком и консервативной, и либеральной политической мысли; "Демократия в Америке" содержит многочисленные наблюдения относительно американской экономической культуры (отношение к риску, богатству, банкротству и т. д.), в связи с чем Токвиля иногда считают одним из первых экономических социологов)

см. тж. Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Wiener Staatsoper

nm. PO-ÉTO (Albanais.001, Notre-Dame-Be.) ; rinmî, -re, -e (001).

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Les poètes et écrivains de langue savoyarde: - François AGNELLET, Fanfwé ANYÈLÈ, né le 23 février 1807 à Saint-Jean-de- Sixt et mort d'une pleurésie à Thônes le 26 octobre 1872. - Joseph BÉARD, Jozè BYÂ, médecin, né à Rumilly le 25 février 1808 et mort le 1er février 1872. Sigles: BEA., RCB.. - Louis BERTHIER, Dôdo Fènîre, de Marcellaz-Albanais. - André BOUCHET, Andri BOUSHÈ (1902-1964), pharmacien à Cruseilles (farmachin à Korzlyè). Sigle: BOU.. - Charle COLLOMBAT, Chârle KOLONBÀ, aveugle de naissance, est né le 5 février 1820 au village de Chessy, commune de Mûres, près d'Alby-sur-Chéran, et mort le 19 janvier 1865. Sigle: COL.. - Claude Aimé CONSTANTIN né à Thônes en 1831, mort à Annecy en 1900, à l'origine du Dictionnaire Savoyard compilé par Joseph DÉSORMAUX (sigle COD.). Livres Études sur le patois savoyard - Projet d'alphabet à l'usage de notre patois - Annecy - 1877. - Charles DESBORDES, Jozon dè Kolonban, né à Paris en 1866, mort à Thônes en 1935. - Joseph DÉSORMAUX. Compilateur du dictionnaire savoyard de Aimé Constantin (sigle COD.). Livres Mots et Coutumes de Savoie (sigles DS3., DS4.), Bibliographie méthodique des parlers de Savoie - Langue et littérature (sigle BMS.). - Alfred DESSERVETAZ, Frèdo DSARVÈTA, d'Annecy. Sigle: DES.. - Jean-François DUCROS, Dyan-Fanfwé DUKRÔ, de Sixt, né le 29 janvier 1775 au village de Nant-Bride ou du Cros, mort brutalement d'apoplexie le 16 novembre 1824. - Joseph FONTAINE, Jozè FONTÉNE, (1855-1913), professeur, originaire de Rumilly. Sigle: FON.. - Claude GAY né aux Clefs en 1837, mort à Annecy en 1911. - Amélie GEX, Méli JÉ (...), femme journaliste, écrivain, est née le 24 octobre 1835 à la Chapelle-Blanche (Savoie) et morte le 16 juin 1883 à Chambéry. Sigles: GEC., GEX.. Voir aussi au mot GEX. On a beaucoup parlé de sa graphie et de sa prononciation. Voici quelques remarques: bletta (GEC.34) = blèta < mouillée>, velles (GEC.14) = vèle < ville>, feille (GEC.26) = felye / fèlye < fille>, pêinse < (il) pense> rime avec dispêinse < dispense> (GEC.12) ou avec dinse < ainsi> (GEC.134) = pêsse / pinse < (il) pense>. Le ppr. est tantôt en -êê tantôt en -an. On a en effet assadaî = assadêê < savourant> (GEC.20) et levant = levan < levant> (GEC.214). Pierre GRASSET, en patois d'Arvillard, a écrit deux livres: 1) Les contes fantastiques d'Arvillard. Éditions GAP. 1997. Sigle CFA.. 2) La Saga des Taguet. Édition Savoie - Val Gelon, 73110 La Rochette. Juin 2000. Sigle GST. - Georges KERBOEUF a édité un livre de chansons et poèmes en patois d'Aix-les- Bains Rimes et Fianfiournes chez J. Ducret et Cie à Aix-les-Bains en 1924. Georges Kerboeuf, d'origine bretonne, est venu travailler à Aix-les-Bains comme correcteur d'imprimerie et y a appris le patois savoyard. Il est mort dans cette ville, peu avant la guerre de 1940. - Albert LAPRAZ, originaire du Châble. Pseudonyme Dyan de la Feudra < Jean de la Foudre>. - Aimé MARCOZ d'Aicle (hameau de Rumilly), Émé Marko d'Éklye, (1856-1906), professeur, de Rumilly. Sigle: AMA.. - Nicolas MARTIN, Nikolà MARTIN, né vers 1498 et mort vers 1566, musicien et poète à St-Jean-de-Maurienne, le plus ancien auteur de langue savoyarde. - Ida MERMILLOD né aux Villards-sur-Thônes, mère de cinq enfants, a été présidente de l'association patoisante lé Kèrnye <les kergnes = les fruits séchés>. Livres: 1) Proverbes, dictons et réflexions en patois et en français, édité par les patoisants du val de Thônes en juin 1998. 2) Lou diton < Les dictons>, en patois et en français, n° 25 de la Collection les "Amis du Val de Thônes", édité en juillet 2001. - Claude MERMILLOD-BARON, né à Paris en 1869 et mort à Thônes en 1949. - Just SONGEON, Justo SONZHON, professeur, né le 17 mai 1880 à la Combe-de- Sillingy et mort le 30 mars 1940 à Paris. Pseudonyme Lè ptyou d'la Konba < le petit (l'enfant) de la Combe (-de-Sillingy)>. Sigle: SON.. Livre Lô kou de mula < les coups de pierre à aiguiser>. Une revue patoise parue en cinq numéro Lè kmâklyo < la crémaillère>. - Fernand TAVERNIER, Farnan TAVARNÎ, originaire de Massingy (Marigny). Pseudonyme L'Grilyè d'la Siza < le grillon de la haie>. Sigles: GSC., TAV.. Livre Dari la Moralye < derrière le mur> (sigle DLM.). - Louis TERRIER, Lwis TARÎ (1858-1897), de la région d'Annecy. Sigle: TER.. Livre Choses et Gens d'Annecy - 6e édition - Annecy- 1944 (sigle CGA.).

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SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Ports and shipping, Public utilities, Railways and locomotives

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The son of Marc Isambard Brunel and Sophia Kingdom, he was educated at a private boarding-school in Hove. At the age of 14 he went to the College of Caen and then to the Lycée Henri-Quatre in Paris, after which he was apprenticed to Louis Breguet. In 1822 he returned from France and started working in his father's office, while spending much of his time at the works of Maudslay, Sons \& Field.

From 1825 to 1828 he worked under his father on the construction of the latter's Thames Tunnel, occupying the position of Engineer-in-Charge, exhibiting great courage and presence of mind in the emergencies which occurred not infrequently. These culminated in January 1828 in the flooding of the tunnel and work was suspended for seven years. For the next five years the young engineer made abortive attempts to find a suitable outlet for his talents, but to little avail. Eventually, in 1831, his design for a suspension bridge over the River Avon at Clifton Gorge was accepted and he was appointed Engineer. (The bridge was eventually finished five years after Brunel's death, as a memorial to him, the delay being due to inadequate financing.) He next planned and supervised improvements to the Bristol docks. In March 1833 he was appointed Engineer of the Bristol Railway, later called the Great Western Railway. He immediately started to survey the route between London and Bristol that was completed by late August that year. On 5 July 1836 he married Mary Horsley and settled into 18 Duke Street, Westminster, London, where he also had his office. Work on the Bristol Railway started in 1836. The foundation stone of the Clifton Suspension Bridge was laid the same year. Whereas George Stephenson had based his standard railway gauge as 4 ft 8½ in (1.44 m), that or a similar gauge being usual for colliery wagonways in the Newcastle area, Brunel adopted the broader gauge of 7 ft (2.13 m). The first stretch of the line, from Paddington to Maidenhead, was opened to traffic on 4 June 1838, and the whole line from London to Bristol was opened in June 1841. The continuation of the line through to Exeter was completed and opened on 1 May 1844. The normal time for the 194-mile (312 km) run from Paddington to Exeter was 5 hours, at an average speed of 38.8 mph (62.4 km/h) including stops. The Great Western line included the Box Tunnel, the longest tunnel to that date at nearly two miles (3.2 km).

Brunel was the engineer of most of the railways in the West Country, in South Wales and much of Southern Ireland. As railway networks developed, the frequent break of gauge became more of a problem and on 9 July 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into it. In spite of comparative tests, run between Paddington-Didcot and Darlington-York, which showed in favour of Brunel's arrangement, the enquiry ruled in favour of the narrow gauge, 274 miles (441 km) of the former having been built against 1,901 miles (3,059 km) of the latter to that date. The Gauge Act of 1846 forbade the building of any further railways in Britain to any gauge other than 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m).

The existence of long and severe gradients on the South Devon Railway led to Brunel's adoption of the atmospheric railway developed by Samuel Clegg and later by the Samuda brothers. In this a pipe of 9 in. (23 cm) or more in diameter was laid between the rails, along the top of which ran a continuous hinged flap of leather backed with iron. At intervals of about 3 miles (4.8 km) were pumping stations to exhaust the pipe. Much trouble was experienced with the flap valve and its lubrication—freezing of the leather in winter, the lubricant being sucked into the pipe or eaten by rats at other times—and the experiment was abandoned at considerable cost.

Brunel is to be remembered for his two great West Country tubular bridges, the Chepstow and the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, with the latter opened in May 1859, having two main spans of 465 ft (142 m) and a central pier extending 80 ft (24 m) below high water mark and allowing 100 ft (30 m) of headroom above the same. His timber viaducts throughout Devon and Cornwall became a feature of the landscape. The line was extended ultimately to Penzance.

As early as 1835 Brunel had the idea of extending the line westwards across the Atlantic from Bristol to New York by means of a steamship. In 1836 building commenced and the hull left Bristol in July 1837 for fitting out at Wapping. On 31 March 1838 the ship left again for Bristol but the boiler lagging caught fire and Brunel was injured in the subsequent confusion. On 8 April the ship set sail for New York (under steam), its rival, the 703-ton Sirius, having left four days earlier. The 1,340-ton Great Western arrived only a few hours after the Sirius. The hull was of wood, and was copper-sheathed. In 1838 Brunel planned a larger ship, some 3,000 tons, the Great Britain, which was to have an iron hull.

The Great Britain was screwdriven and was launched on 19 July 1843,289 ft (88 m) long by 51 ft (15.5 m) at its widest. The ship's first voyage, from Liverpool to New York, began on 26 August 1845. In 1846 it ran aground in Dundrum Bay, County Down, and was later sold for use on the Australian run, on which it sailed no fewer than thirty-two times in twenty-three years, also serving as a troop-ship in the Crimean War. During this war, Brunel designed a 1,000-bed hospital which was shipped out to Renkioi ready for assembly and complete with shower-baths and vapour-baths with printed instructions on how to use them, beds and bedding and water closets with a supply of toilet paper! Brunel's last, largest and most extravagantly conceived ship was the Great Leviathan, eventually named The Great Eastern, which had a double-skinned iron hull, together with both paddles and screw propeller. Brunel designed the ship to carry sufficient coal for the round trip to Australia without refuelling, thus saving the need for and the cost of bunkering, as there were then few bunkering ports throughout the world. The ship's construction was started by John Scott Russell in his yard at Millwall on the Thames, but the building was completed by Brunel due to Russell's bankruptcy in 1856. The hull of the huge vessel was laid down so as to be launched sideways into the river and then to be floated on the tide. Brunel's plan for hydraulic launching gear had been turned down by the directors on the grounds of cost, an economy that proved false in the event. The sideways launch with over 4,000 tons of hydraulic power together with steam winches and floating tugs on the river took over two months, from 3 November 1857 until 13 January 1858. The ship was 680 ft (207 m) long, 83 ft (25 m) beam and 58 ft (18 m) deep; the screw was 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter and paddles 60 ft (18.3 m) in diameter. Its displacement was 32,000 tons (32,500 tonnes).

The strain of overwork and the huge responsibilities that lay on Brunel began to tell. He was diagnosed as suffering from Bright's disease, or nephritis, and spent the winter travelling in the Mediterranean and Egypt, returning to England in May 1859. On 5 September he suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed, and he died ten days later at his Duke Street home.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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William Buckle was the son of Thomas Buckle (1759–1849), a millwright who later assisted the 9th Earl of Dundonald (1749–1831) in his various inventions, principally machines for the manufacture of rope. Soon after the birth of William, the family moved from Alnwick to Hull, Yorkshire, where he received his education. The family again moved c.1808 to London, and William was apprenticed to Messrs Woolf \& Edwards, millwrights and engineers of Lambeth. During his apprenticeship he attended evening classes at a mechanical drawing school in Finsbury, which was then the only place of its kind in London.

After completing his apprenticeship, he was sent by Messrs Humphrys to Memel in Prussia to establish steamboats on the rivers and lakes there under the patronage of the Prince of Hardenburg. After about four years he returned to Britain and was employed by Boulton, Watt \& Co. to install the engines in the first steam mail packet for the service between Dublin and Holyhead. He was responsible for the engines of the steamship Lightning when it was used on the visit of George IV to Ireland.

About 1824 Buckle was engaged by Boulton, Watt \& Co. as Manager of the Soho Foundry, where he is credited with introducing the first large screw-cutting lathe. At Soho about 700 or 800 men were employed on a wide variety of engineering manufacture, including coining machinery for mints in many parts of the world, with some in 1826 for the Mint at the Soho Manufactory. In 1851, following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, the Royal Mint in London was reorganized and Buckle was asked to take the post of Assistant Coiner, the senior executive officer under the Deputy Master. This he accepted, retaining the post until the end of his life.

At Soho, Buckle helped to establish a literary and scientific institution to provide evening classes for the apprentices and took part in the teaching. He was an original member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which was founded in Birmingham in January 1847, and a member of their Council from then until 1855. He contributed a number of papers in the early years, including a memoir of William Murdock whom he had known at Soho; he resigned from the Institution in 1856 after his move to London. He was an honorary member of the London Association of Foreman Engineers.

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SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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John Goucher was the son of a Yorkshire farmer who began his employed life as a carpenter. In 1851, at the age of 20, he was living on the farm of his father and employing four labourers. He developed and patented a means of wrapping wire around the individual bars of a threshing machine drum in such a way that grooves were formed in them. These grooves allowed the threshed grain to pass through without being crushed or otherwise damaged.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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James Nasmyth was the youngest son of Alexander Nasmyth (1758–1840), the portrait and landscape painter. According to his autobiography he was named James Hall after his father's friend, the geologist Sir James Hall (1761–1832), but he seems never to have used his second name in official documents. He received an elementary education at Edinburgh High School, but left at the age of 12. He attended evening classes at the Edinburgh School of Arts for the instruction of Mechanics between 1821 and 1825, and gained experience as a mechanic at an early age in his father's workshop. He shared these early experiences with his brother George, who was only a year or so older, and in the 1820s the brothers built several model steam engines and a steam-carriage capable of carrying eight passengers on the public roads. In 1829 Nasmyth obtained a position in London as personal assistant to Henry Maudslay, and after Maudslay's death in February 1831 he remained with Maudslay's partner, Joshua Field, for a short time. He then returned to Edinburgh, where he and his brother George started in a small way as general engineers. In 1834 they moved to a small workshop in Manchester, and in 1836, with the aid of financial backing from some Manchester businessmen, they established on a site at Patricroft, a few miles from the city, the works which became known as the Bridgewater Foundry. They were soon joined by a third partner, Holbrook Gaskell (1813–1909), who looked after the administration of the business, the firm then being known as Nasmyths Gaskell \& Co. They specialized in making machine tools, and Nasmyth invented many improvements so that they soon became one of the leading manufacturers in this field. They also made steam locomotives for the rapidly developing railways. James Nasmyth's best-known invention was the steam-hammer, which dates from 1839 but was not patented until 1842. The self-acting control gear was probably the work of Robert Wilson and ensured the commercial success of the invention. George Nasmyth resigned from the partnership in 1843 and in 1850 Gaskell also resigned, after which the firm continued as James Nasmyth \& Co. James Nasmyth himself retired at the end of 1856 and went to live at Penshurst, Kent, in a house which he named "Hammerfield" where he devoted his time mainly to his hobby of astronomy. Robert Wilson returned to become Managing Partner of the firm, which later became Nasmyth, Wilson \& Co. and retained that style until its closure in 1940. Nasmyth's claim to be the sole inventor of the steam-hammer has been disputed, but his patent of 1842 was not challenged and the fourteen-year monopoly ensured the prosperity of the business so that he was able to retire at the age of 48. At his death in 1890 he left an estate valued at £243,805.

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SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing, Photography, film and optics

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The son of a goldsmith, Pretsch learned the printing trade in Vienna, where he worked until 1831. He then took up a series of posts in Germany, Belgium and Holland before returning to Vienna, where in 1842 he joined the Imperial State Printing Office. The office was equipped with a photographic studio, and Pretsch was encouraged to explore applications of photography to printing and the graphic arts. In 1851 he was sent to London to take responsibility for the Austrian printing exhibits of the Great Exhibition. This event proved to be a significant international show case for photography and Pretsch saw a great number of recent innovations and made many useful contacts. On returning to Vienna, he began to develop a process for producing printing plates from photographs. Using Talbot's discovery that bichromated gelatine swells in water after exposure to light, he electrotyped the relief image obtained. In 1854 Pretsch resigned from his post in Vienna and travelled back to London, where he patented his process, calling it photogalvanography. He went on to form a business, the Photo-Galvano-Graphic Company, to print and market his pictures.

The Photographic Manager of the company was the celebrated photographer Roger Fenton, recently returned from his exploits on the battlefields of the Crimea. In 1856 the company issued a large serial work, Photographic Art Treasures, illustrated with Pretsch's pictures, which created considerable interest. The venture did not prove a commercial success, however, and although further plates were made and issued, Fenton found other interests to pursue and Pretsch was left to try to apply some of his ideas to lithography. This too had no successful outcome, and in 1863 Pretsch returned to Vienna. He was reappointed to a post at the Imperial State Printing Office, but his health failed and he made no further progress with his processes.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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R.L.Stevens was the son of John Stevens and was given the technical education his father lacked. He assisted his father with the Little Juliana and the Phoenix, managed the commercial operation of the Phoenix on the Delaware River, and subsequently built many other steamboats.

In 1830 he and his brother Edwin A.Stevens obtained a charter from the New Jersey Legislature for the Camden \& Amboy Railroad \& Transportation Company, and he visited Britain to obtain rails and a locomotive. Railway track in the USA then normally comprised longitudinal timber rails with running surfaces of iron straps, but Stevens designed rails of flat-bottom section, which were to become standard, and had the first batch rolled in Wales. He also designed hookheaded spikes for them, and "iron tongues", which became fishplates. From Robert Stephenson \& Co. (see Robert Stephenson) he obtained the locomotive John Bull, which was similar to the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway's Samson. The Camden \& Amboy Railroad was opened in 1831, but John Bull, a 0–4–0, proved over sensitive to imperfections in the track; Stevens and his mechanic, Isaac Dripps, added a two-wheeled non-swivelling "pilot" at the front to guide it round curves. The locomotive survives at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

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See also: Adams, William Bridges( fishplates); Vignoles, Charles Blacker( flat-bottom rail).

Чаадаєв, Петро Якович (1794, Москва - 1856) - рос. філософ, публіцист Н. авчався в Московському ун-ті (1808 - 1811). Брав участь у війні 1812 - 1814 рр. Роки 1820 - 1821 позначені у Ч. глибокою внутрішньою кризою. У 1823 - 1826 рр. подорожує по країнах Європи; познайомився із Шеллінгом і Ламенне, погляди яких на релігію справили на нього глибоке враження. У1829 - 1831 рр. написав свій головний твір "Листи про філософію історії" (загальновідома назва "Філософічні листи"). Як філософ був, головно, зосереджений на історіософських розмислах - про роль християнства у релігійному єднанні людства, про специфіку рос. національної свідомості та співвідношення народу і державної влади. У розумінні явищ свідомості схилявся до психофізичного паралелізму, в тлумаченні історичного процесу - до провіденціалізму і теїзму.

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Осн. тв.: "Твори і листи" (т. 1-2, 1913-1914).