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81 letter
['letə]1) (a mark expressing a sound: the letters of the alphabet.) črka2) (a written message, especially sent by post in an envelope: She slowly took the letter from its envelope; Did you post my letter?) pismo•- letterbox
- letterhead
- to the letter* * *I [létə]nounčrka; pismo; plural uradno pismo, listina; plural književnosf, znanostto the letter — dobesedno, podrobnothe letter of the law — črka zakona, strogo po zakonufiguratively red-letter day — praznikman of letters — književnik, znanstvenikcommonwealth ( —ali republic) of letters — pisci, literatieconomy letter of acceptance — prejeta menica, akceptjuridically letter of administration — sodni nalog o upravi zapuščineeconomy letter of advice — spremno pismo, avizojuridically letter of allotment — sodni nalog o dodelitviletter of attorney — pooblastilo, polnomočjeeconomy letter of conveyance — tovorni spremni listletter of credence — pismeno priporočilo, akreditivno pismoeconomy letter of credit — kreditno pismoletter of marque — dovoljenje privatniku, da zaseže tujo trgovsko ladjoletters patent economy patentni listjuridically dekret, pooblastilo; juridically letters testamentary — pooblastilo izvrševalcu oporokeII [létə]transitive verbnapisati, zaznamovati s črkami, (naslov) natisnitiIII [létə]nounnajemodajalec -
82 ♦ letter
♦ letter /ˈlɛtə(r)/n.1 lettera; carattere ( di stampa); epistola; missiva: capital [small] letters, lettere maiuscole [minuscole]; a business letter, una lettera commerciale; love letters, lettere d'amore; a letter of introduction, una lettera di presentazione; a thank you letter, una lettera di ringraziamento; to answer a letter, rispondere a una lettera; to write a letter, scrivere una lettera; to dictate a letter, dettare una lettera; to receive (o to get) a letter, ricevere una lettera2 [u] lettera; senso letterale: the letter of the law, la lettera della legge; to carry out an order to the letter, eseguire un ordine alla lettera3 (pl.) lettere; belle lettere; letteratura: a man of letters, un uomo di lettere; the profession of letters, la professione delle lettere; the commonwealth of letters, la repubblica delle lettere● letter balance, bilancia per lettere; pesalettere □ letter basket, cestello per la corrispondenza □ letter bomb, lettera esplosiva □ (comm.) letter book, copialettere □ letter-bound, troppo attaccato alla lettera □ letter box, cassetta per le lettere; ( anche) buca delle lettere; (TV) letter box format, schermo intero ( con le bande nere sopra e sotto, cfr. widescreen) □ letter card, biglietto postale □ letter heading ► letterhead □ letter-lock, serratura a combinazione □ ( banca) letter of advice, lettera d'avviso □ letter of application, domanda d'assunzione; (fin.) richiesta di sottoscrizione di azioni □ (leg.) letter of attorney, procura; atto di procura □ (polit.) letters of credence, credenziali □ ( banca, fin.) letter of credit, lettera di credito □ (comm., fin.) letter of intent, lettera d'intenti □ letter of regret, lettera di scuse □ letter opener, tagliacarte □ letter paper, carta da lettere □ letters patent, lettere patenti, decreti di un sovrano; (leg.) brevetto ( d'invenzione) □ (spec. USA) letter-perfect, perfetto in ogni dettaglio; (teatr.) che sa la parte alla perfezione □ (leg.: diritto internazionale) letters rogatory, rogatoria □ letter scales = letter balance ► sopra □ (fin., Borsa, USA) letter security, titolo non registrato ( presso la Securities and Exchange Commission) □ letter sheet, biglietto postale □ (tipogr.) letter spacing, spaziatura fra le lettere □ letter tray, vaschetta per la corrispondenza.(to) letter /ˈlɛtə(r)/v. t.4 mettere una scritta su (qc.). -
83 gadget
['gædʒɪt]nurządzenie nt, gadżet m (inf)* * *['ɡæ‹it](a usually small tool, machine etc: a useful gadget for loosening bottle lids.) przyrząd, `patent` -
84 gadget
n. apparat, anordning; uppfinning; patent; tillbehör* * *['ɡæ‹it](a usually small tool, machine etc: a useful gadget for loosening bottle lids.) anordning, apparat, manick -
85 law
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86 case
1) случай; положение3) казус; судебное решение по делу; судебный прецедент; судебное дело5) фактические обстоятельства; изложение фактических обстоятельств; версия6) доводы; аргументация по делу; изложение требований; меморандум по делу; обвинение ( в суде)7) деликтный "иск по конкретным обстоятельствам дела" ( о взыскании убытков при невозможности предъявления других типов исков)•case against — доводы против (кого-л., чего-л.);
case as authority — судебное дело как источник права;
case at bar — дело на стадии судебного разбирательства;
case at hand — дело, находящееся в производстве;
case at law — судебное дело; предмет судебного разбирательства;
case cleared by arrest — амер. полиц. преступление, раскрытое в меру доказательств, достаточных для производства ареста;
case for — 1. аргументация в пользу кого-л., чего-л. 2. дело, выигранное кем-л. ;
case for enforcement — случай или версия, обосновывающие правоприменение;
case for motion — обоснование заявленного в суде ходатайства;
case for the crown — англ. версия государственного обвинения;
case for the defence — 1. версия защиты 2. дело, выигранное защитой;
case for the jury — дело, подлежащее рассмотрению присяжными;
case for the prosecution — 1. версия обвинения 2. дело, выигранное обвинением;
case for trial — дело, подлежащее судебному рассмотрению;
case going to trial — дело, направляемое для судебного рассмотрения;
case made — 1. согласованное сторонами изложение фактов по спорному правовому вопросу 2. запись судопроизводства;
case mortality — "смертность" судебных дел (количество судебных дел, проигранных истцами или обвинителями);
case on appeal — 1. англ. изложение дела стороной по апелляции 2. записка по делу, представляемая в апелляционный суд адвокатом истца по апелляции 3. документ с постановкой правового вопроса нижестоящим судом перед вышестоящим судом 4. дело, находящееся в апелляционном производстве ( поступившее или рассматриваемое по апелляционной жалобе);
case on trial — дело на стадии судебного рассмотрения;
case pending — дело на стадии рассмотрения; незаконченный процесс;
case received for investigation — дело, поступившее на расследование;
reference to a case — отсылка к делу;
case reserved — особые правовые вопросы ( передаваемые по соглашению или арбитражем на разрешение суда);
case sounding in contract — дело по спору из договора;
case sounding in tort — дело, связанное с причинением деликтного вреда;
case stated — письменное соглашение между истцом и ответчиком о фактах, лежащих в основе спора ( позволяющее суду ограничиться применением закона);
case sufficient for prosecution — версия, подкреплённая доказательствами, достаточными для возбуждения уголовного преследования;
case tried by the court — дело, рассмотренное судом без присяжных;
to appear in the case — выступать по делу;
to arrange a case — согласовать позиции по делу;
to bring a case — 1. представить дело в суд, суду 2. возбудить иск, обвинение, судебное дело 3. представить версию по делу 4. представить доводы, доказательства по делу;
to call (on) a case — назначить дело к слушанию;
to carry a case — проводить судебное дело, судебный процесс;
to close a case — прекратить дело; отказаться от иска, от обвинения;
to commence a case — возбудить иск, обвинение, судебное дело;
to develop a case — 1. подготовить дело 2. возбудить иск, обвинение, судебное дело;
to develop a case sufficient for prosecution — подготовить дело для возбуждения по нему уголовного преследования;
to dismiss a case — прекратить дело;
to disprove the case — 1. опровергнуть версию 2. опровергнуть доказательства 3. опровергнуть обвинение;
to drop a case — отказаться от иска, от обвинения;
to enter a case — 1. войти в дело 2. предъявить иск, обвинение;
to establish the case — доказать версию по делу;
to file a case — подать иск;
to follow the case — следовать прецеденту;
to handle a case — см. to conduct a case;
to initiate a case — возбудить иск, обвинение, судебное дело;
to lose a case — проиграть дело;
to make out the case — доказать версию по делу; выиграть дело;
case to move for new trial — заявление о новом рассмотрении дела;
to open case to the jury — представить фактические обстоятельства дела присяжным;
to prejudice a case — 1. относиться к делу с предубеждением 2. повлиять на судьбу дела ранее вынесенным по нему административным решением;
to prepare a case for trial — подготовить дело к слушанию в суде;
to present no case — не представить доказательств по делу;
to press the case — оказывать давление на суд, рассматривающий дело;
to process a case — вести дело; вести судебный процесс;
to prove a case — доказать версию по делу;
to prove one's case — доказать собственную версию;
to reach a case — выиграть дело;
to read a case — вести дело в суде;
case to remain open — дело, не закончившееся решением;
to rest the case — закончить изложение выдвинутой версии;
to review the case — пересмотреть дело;
to sanction a case — назначить дело к слушанию;
to solve a case — решить дело; раскрыть преступление ( о полиции);
to watch a case — наблюдать за ходом дела в суде;
to win a case — выиграть дело;
case tried by the court — дело, рассмотренное судом без присяжных;
case under investigation — расследуемое дело;
under the cases — в соответствии с судебной практикой;
- case in chargecase within the statute — случай, предусмотренный статутным правом
- case in equity
- case in fact
- case in law
- case in point
- conduct a case
- case of admiralty
- case of circumstantial evidence
- case of direct evidence
- case of emergency
- case of maritime jurisdiction
- case of the first impression
- administrative case
- admiralty case
- adult case
- advancement case
- agreed case
- analogous case
- anonymous case
- antitrust case
- appeals cases
- assault-homicide case
- bad case
- capital case
- Chancery cases
- circumstantial case
- cited case
- civil case
- civil-commitment case
- cleared case
- cognizable case
- common-law case
- common-law case of crime
- Commonwealth case
- Commonwealth's case
- consolidated cases
- contentious case
- court case
- Court of Appeal cases
- criminal case
- criminal-commitment case
- criminal constitutional case
- Crown case
- crown cases reserved
- crown's case
- defence case
- direct case
- disciplinary case
- discretion case
- dismissed case
- diverse citizenship case
- diversion case
- diversity case
- diversity jurisdiction case
- due process case
- earlier case
- early case
- equity case
- ex parte case
- ex parte patent case
- federal case
- former case
- good case
- government case
- government's case
- hard case
- illustrative case
- instant case
- jury case
- juvenile case
- landmark case
- later case
- law case
- leading case
- legal case
- litigated case
- litigation case
- major case
- major criminal case
- maritime case
- massive case
- mental case
- minor case
- minor criminal case
- moot case
- multi-defendant case
- non-capital case
- non-contentious case
- nondiversity jurisdiction case
- non-jury case
- nullity case
- parent case
- party's case
- pending case
- People case
- People's case
- petty case
- police complaint cases
- political case
- precedent case
- presumptive case of an offence
- previous case
- prima facie case
- prior case
- Probate case
- prosecuted case
- prosecution case
- release case
- remand case
- reopened case
- reported case
- restrictive covenant case
- routine case
- ruled case
- sales-of-goods case
- seminal case
- sentencing case
- similar case
- small claim case
- solved case
- special case
- state case
- stated case
- state's case
- statutory case
- statutory case of crime
- strong case for/against
- tax case
- test case
- thin case
- tie-in case
- trial case
- trumped-up case
- unanswerable case
- uncontested case
- unreported case
- unsolved case
- weak case for/against
- undefended case -
87 claim
1) требование; право требования; претензия; заявление права; правопритязание; рекламация; иск | требовать; заявлять претензию; притязать; заявлять право; искать ( в суде)2) утверждение; заявление; ссылка; предлог | утверждать; заявлять3) патентная формула; формула изобретения; пункт патентной формулы или формулы изобретения4) горный отвод, участок, отведённый под разработку недр•claim and delivery — иск о восстановлении владения движимостью;
claim for damages — иск о возмещении убытков;
claim for relief — требование о защите прав;
claim in action — требование по иску;
claim in contract — требование из договора;
claim in return — встречное требование; встречный иск;
claim in tort — требование из деликта;
claims not defining the invention — формула изобретения, не дающая ясного определения изобретения;
to claim administration — притязать, претендовать на управление наследственной массой;
to claim credit — заявлять о праве на льготы при отбывании тюремного заключения;
to claim damages — требовать возмещения убытков;
to deny [to disallow] a claim — отказывать в иске;
to claim default — предъявлять требование из неисполнения договора;
to file a claim — подавать иск;
to claim immunity — претендовать на иммунитет;
to claim patent infringement — заявлять требование, искать из нарушения патента;
to claim privilege — 1. претендовать на привилегию 2. заявить о наличии привилегии; заявить о защите привилегией ( не отвечать на вопросы и не давать показаний);
to claim responsibility — требовать ( возложения) ответственности;
to run a claim — заявлять иск;
to claim under another's right — заявлять требование, искать в силу правопреемства или на основании права другого лица;
to claim under one's own right — заявлять требование, искать в силу собственного права;
to claim under a policy — предъявлять требование в соответствии с условиями страхового полиса;
- claim of cognizanceto claim victim — требовать статуса потерпевшего от преступления;
- claim of interest
- claim of marriage
- claim of right
- claim of sovereignty
- claim of title
- accident claim
- adverse claim
- antecedent claim
- apparatus claim
- bogus claim
- book claim
- civil claim
- colourable claim
- conflicting claims
- contingent claim
- damage claim
- dependent claim
- dormant claim
- embodiment claim
- false claim
- federal claim
- fictitious claim
- first claim
- foreign currency claim
- fraudulent claim
- frivolous claim
- hostile claim
- hybrid claim
- injury claim
- insubstantial claim
- insurance claim
- junior claim
- legal claim
- legitimate claim
- lode claim
- loss claim
- means claim
- method claim
- mining claim
- money claim
- multiple dependent claim
- omnibus claim
- overbroad claim
- payment claim
- plaintiff's claim
- post-conviction claim
- prearranged claim
- preferential claim
- prior claim
- process claim
- product claim
- product-by-process claim
- reciprocal claim
- salvage claim
- senior claim
- small claim
- species claim
- stale claim
- state claim
- structure claim
- subsidiary claim
- superior claim
- supplementary claim
- tort claim
- unliquidated claim
- unpatentable claim
- valid claim
- claim of conusance
- preferred claim
- privileged claim -
88 defect
nдефект; изъян; неисправность
- alleged defect
- apparent defect
- claimed defect
- critical defect
- detected defect
- discovered defect
- established defect
- grave defect
- hereditary defect
- hidden defect
- incidental defect
- inherent defect
- initial defect
- internal defect
- invisible defect
- latent defect
- major defect
- manufacturing defect
- manufacturing works defect
- material defect
- minor defect
- natural defect
- obvious defect
- outer defect
- outside defect
- patent defect
- petty defect
- principal defect
- quality defect
- repairable defect
- serious defect
- slight defect
- small defect
- subsurface defect
- surface defect
- visible defect
- visual defect
- zero defects
- undetected defect
- defect in design
- defect in goods
- defect in material
- defect in packing
- without defects
- free from defects
- conceal a defect
- correct a defect
- detect a defect
- discover a defect
- eliminate a defect
- find a defect
- have defects
- make good a defect
- rectify a defect
- remedy a defect defect costsEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > defect
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89 firm
n
- accountancy firm
- accounting firm
- accredited brokerage firm
- affiliated firm
- agency firm
- auditing firm
- auditor firm
- banking firm
- bankrupt firm
- blue chip firm
- broker's firm
- brokerage firm
- business firm
- civil engineering firm
- commercial firm
- competing firm
- competitive firm
- competitor firm
- consultancy firm
- consultation firm
- consulting firm
- consulting engineering firm
- contracting firm
- correspondent firm
- dealer firm
- distressed firm
- engineering firm
- entrant firm
- executive search firm
- exempted firm
- export firm
- financial firm
- financially troubled firm
- foreign firm
- forwarding firm
- incorporated firm
- individual firm
- industrial firm
- investment firm
- investment advisory firm
- investment banking firm
- joint firm
- joint commercial firm
- large firm
- law firm
- leading firm
- local firm
- long firm
- loss-making firm
- mail order firm
- major firm
- marketing firm
- member firm
- moderate-sized firm
- nonmember firm
- offshore firm
- outside firm
- over-leveraged firm
- participating firm
- patent law firm
- principal firm
- private firm
- prosperous firm
- public accounting firm
- purchasing firm
- renowned firm
- reputable firm
- retail firm
- rival firm
- search firm
- small firm
- solvent firm
- specialized firm
- start-up firm
- state firm
- state-owned firm
- stockbroker firm
- subsidiary firm
- target firm
- trade firm
- trading firm
- turnaround firm
- universal firm
- wholesale firm
- close down a firm
- cooperate with a firm
- direct a firm
- dissolve a firm
- establish a firm
- found a firm
- handle a firm
- keep a firm afloat
- liquidate a firm
- manage a firm
- operate a firm
- register a firm
- represent a firm
- run a firm
- set up a firm
- turn around a firm
- wind up a firm
- wipe out a firm -
90 index
n2) индекс, статистический показатель, характеризующий изменение тех или иных явлений относительно базовой величины4) алфавитный указатель; каталог
- adjusted index
- aggregative index
- alphabetical index
- AMEX Major Market Index
- annual index
- applicable index
- average weighted index
- base index
- benchmark index
- birth rate index
- blue-chip index
- buying power index
- CAC General Index
- calendar year index
- capacity index
- card index
- chain index
- class index of patents
- classified index
- commodity index
- composite index
- consolidated index
- consumer confidence index
- consumer price index
- consumer sentiment index
- core consumer price index
- cost-of-funds index
- cost-of-living index
- crop yield index
- currency pool index
- currency-basket index
- deflator index
- demerit index
- density index
- designation index
- development index
- Dow-Jones index
- Dow Jones industrial index
- downtime index
- dummy index
- economic indices
- engineering and economic indices
- Eurotop 100 index
- exchange rate index
- Financial Times Actuaries Share Index
- Financial Times All-Share Index
- Financial Times Industrial Ordinary Share Index
- Financial Times Share Indices
- Financial Times Stock Exchange 100 Share Index
- Financial Times World Index
- fixed weight index
- food price index
- free index
- freight index
- FT index
- FT-SE index
- FT-SE Eurotrack Index
- FT-SE Small Cap Index
- general index
- group index
- growth index
- guarantee index
- hedonic price index
- hi-lo index
- identifying index
- individual index
- industrial production index
- inflation index
- investment index
- labour input index
- leading index
- Lloyd's Shipping index
- market index
- market capitalization index
- maturity index
- migration index
- mobility index
- mortgage contract rate index
- NASDAQ composite index
- Nikkei 300 index
- Nielsen Drug Index
- Nielsen Food Index
- NYSE Common Stock Index
- NYSE Composite Index
- ocean freight rate index
- operational consumer price index
- outgoing product quality index
- output index
- patent index
- performance index
- population concentration index
- postal index
- preliminary index
- price index
- price increase index
- primary index
- priority index
- producer price index
- production index
- product quality index
- profitability index
- public utilities index
- purchasing power index
- qualitative index
- quality index
- quantitative index
- quantity index
- retail price index
- risk index
- seasonal index
- seasonally corrected index
- share index
- share price index
- socioeconomic index
- Standard and Poor's 500 Stock Index
- stock index
- stock exchange index
- summary index
- summary consumer price index
- tariff index
- terms of trade index
- total index
- trade index
- tramp freight index
- transport index
- trend-adjusted index
- unadjusted index
- unit-value index
- unweighted index
- utility index
- value index
- variability index
- volume index
- wage index
- weighted index
- wholesale price index
- year index
- index of applicants
- index of applications
- index of companies
- index of competitiveness
- index of consumption
- index of cost of living
- index of effectiveness
- index of employment
- index of entrepreneurial confidence
- index of goods
- index of industrial production
- index of leading economic indicators
- index of leading indicators
- index of licences
- index of manufacturing capacity
- index of prices
- index of production
- index of productivity
- index of real wages
- index of seasonal variation
- index of securities
- index of share prices
- index of stocks
- index of trademarks
- index of trade sections
- affect the index
- calculate indices
- compile a card index
- drive the index to its July low
- enter on a card index
- serve as an index
- track an index -
91 right
In1) право; привилегия- confer on smb. special rights- give a state the right to perform certain acts on the territory of another state- prejudice smb.'s rights- reserve the right to do smth.- reserve to oneself the right to do smth.2) правильность, справедливость3) обыкн. pl действительные факты, истинное положение вещей•IIправая партия, правые, консерваторыправый, реакционный -
92 firm
•- law firm -
93 live
1. v жить; существовать2. v жить, проживатьto live in need — нуждаться, жить в нищете
3. v выдерживать, не погибать, не портиться4. v перенести, пережить5. v питатьсяto live low — жить в бедности, скудно питаться
6. v возвыш. осуществлять, воплощать7. v жить; сожительствоватьlive to see — доживать; дожить
8. v мириться; терпеть9. a горящий, непогасший10. a действующий; неиспользованный; не взорвавшийся; заряжённый11. a эл. находящийся под напряжениемlive working — работа с проводкой, находящейся под током
12. a живой, энергичный, деятельный, полный сил13. a актуальный, важный, жизненный14. a шутл. настоящий, реальный, невыдуманный15. a проточный16. a чистый17. a яркий, нетусклый18. a полигр. подлежащий набору19. a преим. горн. естественный, нетронутый; натуральныйlive ore — рудное месторождение ; рудная порода
20. a спорт. находящийся в игрерадио, передающийся непосредственно в эфир; транслируемый с места действия ; прямой
live broadcast — прямой репортаж; прямая передача
21. adv непосредственно, прямоСинонимический ряд:1. active (adj.) active; animate; animated; dynamic; energetic; functioning; going; living; operative; running; vigorous; vigourous; vital; vivid; working2. broadcast directly (adj.) broadcast directly; in the flesh; real; unrehearsed3. not dead (adj.) alive; aware; conscious; existing; incarnate; not dead4. be (verb) are; be; be alive; breathe; continue; exist; feed; move5. be remembered (verb) be remembered; endure; last; persist; prevail; remain; survive6. enjoy life (verb) delight in; enjoy life; experience; live richly; love; make every moment count; relish; savor; savour; take pleasure in7. gain subsistence (verb) acquire a livelihood; earn; earn a living; earn money; gain subsistence; subsist; support oneself8. lead (verb) lead; pass; pursue9. reside (verb) abide; bide; domicile; dwell; hang out; inhabit; live in; resideАнтонимический ряд:dead; desist; die; lifeless -
94 pool
1. n лужа; лужица; прудок; озерцо2. n заводь; омут3. n Пул4. n бассейн5. n гидр. бьеф6. n геол. нефтяная площадь, залежь; нефтяное месторождение7. n спец. резервуар; сборник; отстойник; грязевик8. n сварочная ванна9. v горн. зарубать, подрубать10. n общий фонд; объединённые запасы11. n пул, объединение12. n бюро, объединение13. n воен. резерв имущества14. n совокупность ставокto scoop the pool — сорвать банк; крупно выиграть
15. n те, кто делают ставки16. n пулька17. n мед. запас18. n мед. футбольный тотализатор19. n мед. вчт. пул, динамическая область, динамически распределяемая область20. v объединять в общий фонд21. v объединяться в пул22. v сводить воедино, суммироватьСинонимический ряд:1. billiards (noun) billiards; game on a pool table; snooker2. funds (noun) bank; funds; jackpot; kitty; pot; purse; reserves; stakes3. pond (noun) basin; lagoon; natatorium; pond; puddle; small lake; swim tank; swimming hole; swimming pool; tarn4. syndicate (noun) cartel; chain; combine; conglomerate; group; syndicate; trust5. combine (verb) amalgamate; associate; blend; combine; consolidate; go into; join; merge; uniteАнтонимический ряд: -
95 Stranfa
A jute substitute manufactured from straw with a small proportion of jute, and can be produced very cheaply. It was made under a German patent. The process of converting straw into fibre is claimed to be simple and inexpensive. The fibre itself is treated in the same way as jute, that is, batched, softened, carded and stretched and finally spun. -
96 Adamson, Daniel
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Metallurgy, Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 1818 Shildon, Co. Durham, Englandd. January 1890 Didsbury, Manchester, England[br]English mechanical engineer, pioneer in the use of steel for boilers, which enabled higher pressures to be introduced; pioneer in the use of triple-and quadruple-expansion mill engines.[br]Adamson was apprenticed between 1835 and 1841 to Timothy Hackworth, then Locomotive Superintendent on the Stockton \& Darlington Railway. After this he was appointed Draughtsman, then Superintendent Engineer, at that railway's locomotive works until in 1847 he became Manager of Shildon Works. In 1850 he resigned and moved to act as General Manager of Heaton Foundry, Stockport. In the following year he commenced business on his own at Newton Moor Iron Works near Manchester, where he built up his business as an iron-founder and boilermaker. By 1872 this works had become too small and he moved to a 4 acre (1.6 hectare) site at Hyde Junction, Dukinfield. There he employed 600 men making steel boilers, heavy machinery including mill engines fitted with the American Wheelock valve gear, hydraulic plant and general millwrighting. His success was based on his early recognition of the importance of using high-pressure steam and steel instead of wrought iron. In 1852 he patented his type of flanged seam for the firetubes of Lancashire boilers, which prevented these tubes cracking through expansion. In 1862 he patented the fabrication of boilers by drilling rivet holes instead of punching them and also by drilling the holes through two plates held together in their assembly positions. He had started to use steel for some boilers he made for railway locomotives in 1857, and in 1860, only four years after Bessemer's patent, he built six mill engine boilers from steel for Platt Bros, Oldham. He solved the problems of using this new material, and by his death had made c.2,800 steel boilers with pressures up to 250 psi (17.6 kg/cm2).He was a pioneer in the general introduction of steel and in 1863–4 was a partner in establishing the Yorkshire Iron and Steel Works at Penistone. This was the first works to depend entirely upon Bessemer steel for engineering purposes and was later sold at a large profit to Charles Cammell \& Co., Sheffield. When he started this works, he also patented improvements both to the Bessemer converters and to the engines which provided their blast. In 1870 he helped to turn Lincolnshire into an important ironmaking area by erecting the North Lincolnshire Ironworks. He was also a shareholder in ironworks in South Wales and Cumberland.He contributed to the development of the stationary steam engine, for as early as 1855 he built one to run with a pressure of 150 psi (10.5 kg/cm) that worked quite satisfactorily. He reheated the steam between the cylinders of compound engines and then in 1861–2 patented a triple-expansion engine, followed in 1873 by a quadruple-expansion one to further economize steam. In 1858 he developed improved machinery for testing tensile strength and compressive resistance of materials, and in the same year patents for hydraulic lifting jacks and riveting machines were obtained.He was a founding member of the Iron and Steel Institute and became its President in 1888 when it visited Manchester. The previous year he had been President of the Institution of Civil Engineers when he was presented with the Bessemer Gold Medal. He was a constant contributor at the meetings of these associations as well as those of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He did not live to see the opening of one of his final achievements, the Manchester Ship Canal. He was the one man who, by his indomitable energy and skill at public speaking, roused the enthusiasm of the people in Manchester for this project and he made it a really practical proposition in the face of strong opposition.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Institution of Civil Engineers 1887.President, Iron and Steel Institute 1888. Institution of Civil Engineers Bessemer Gold Medal 1887.Further ReadingObituary, Engineer 69:56.Obituary, Engineering 49:66–8.Obituary, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 100:374–8.H.W.Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (provides an illustration of Adamson's flanged seam for boilers).R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (covers the development of the triple-expansion engine).RLH -
97 Appleby, John F.
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 1840 New York, US Ad. ? USA[br]American inventor of the knotting mechanism used on early binders and still found on modern baling machines.[br]As a young man John Appleby worked as a labourer for a farmer near Whitewater in Wisconsin. He was 18 when the farmer bought a new reaping machine. Appleby believed that the concept had not been progressed far enough and that the machine should be able to bind sheaths as well as to cut the corn. It is claimed that while watching a dog playing with a skipping rope he noticed a particular knot created as the dog removed its head from the loop that had passed over it, and recognized the potential of the way in which this knot had been formed. From a piece of apple wood he carved a device that would produce the knot he had seen. A local school teacher backed Appleby's idea with a $50 loan, but the American Civil War and service in the Union Army prevented any further development until 1869 when he took out a patent on a wire-tying binder. A number of the devices were made for him by a company in Beloit. Trials of wire binders held in 1873 highlighted the danger of small pieces of wire caught up in the hay leading to livestock losses. Appleby looked again at the possibility of twine. In 1875 he successfully operated a machine and the following season four were in operation. A number of other developments, not least Behel's "bill hook" knotting device, were also to have an influence in the final development of Appleby's twine-tying binder. As so often happens, it was the vision of the entrepreneur which ultimately led to the success of Appleby's device. In 1877 Appleby persuaded William Deering to produce and market his binder, and 3,000 twine binders, together with the twine produced for them, were put on the market in 1880, with immediate success. Over the next dozen years all harvesting-machine manufacturers adopted the idea, under licence to Appleby.[br]Further ReadingG.Quick and W.Buchele, 1978, The Grain Harvesters, American Society of Agricultural Engineers (provides an account of the development of harvesting machinery and the various tying devices developed for them).1927, "Twine knotter history", Wisconsin Magazine of History (a more specific account).AP -
98 Baxter, George
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. 31 July 1804 Lewes, Sussex, Englandd. 11 January 1867 Sydenham, London, England[br]English pioneer in colour printing.[br]The son of a printer, Baxter was apprenticed to a wood engraver and there began his search for improved methods of making coloured prints, hitherto the perquisite of the rich, in order to bring them within reach of a wider public. After marriage to the daughter of Robert Harrild, founder of the printing firm of Harrild \& Co., he set up house in London, where he continued his experiments on colour while maintaining the run-of-the-mill work that kept the family.The nineteenth century saw a tremendous advance in methods of printing pictures, produced as separate prints or as book illustrations. For the first three decades colour was supplied by hand, but from the 1830s attempts were made to print in colour, using a separate plate for each one. Coloured prints were produced by chromolithography and relief printing on a small scale. Prints were first made with the latter method on a commercial scale by Baxter with a process that he patented in 1835. He generally used a key plate that was engraved, aquatinted or lithographed; the colours were then printed separately from wood or metal blocks. Baxter was a skilful printer and his work reached a high standard. An early example is the frontispiece to Robert Mudie's Summer (1837). In 1849 he began licensing his patent to other printers, and after the Great Exhibition of 1851 colour relief printing came into its own. Of the plethora of illustrated literature that appeared then, Baxter's Gems of the Great Exhibition was one of the most widely circulated souvenirs of the event.Baxter remained an active printer through the 1850s, but increasing competition from the German coloured lithographic process undermined his business and in 1860 he gave up the unequal struggle. In May of that year, all his oil pictures, engravings and blocks went up for auction, some 3,000 lots altogether. Baxter retired to Sydenham, then a country place, making occasional visits to London until injuries sustained in a mishap while he was ascending a London omnibus led to his death. Above all, he helped to initiate the change from the black and white world of pre-Victorian literature to the riotously colourful world of today.[br]Further ReadingC.T.Courtney Lewis, 1908, George Baxter, the Picture Printer, London: Sampson Lowe, Marsden (the classic account).M.E.Mitzmann, 1978, George Baxter and the Baxter Prints, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.LRD -
99 Brown, Joseph Rogers
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering[br]b. 26 January 1810 Warren, Rhode Island, USAd. 23 July 1876 Isles of Shoals, New Hampshire, USA[br]American machine-tool builder and co-founder of Brown \& Sharpe.[br]Joseph Rogers Brown was the eldest son of David Brown, who was modestly established as a maker of and dealer in clocks and watches. Joseph assisted his father during school vacations and at the age of 17 left to obtain training as a machinist. In 1829 he joined his father in the manufacture of tower clocks at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and two years later went into business for himself in Pawtucket making lathes and small tools. In 1833 he rejoined his father in Providence, Rhode Island, as a partner in the manufacture of docks, watches and surveying and mathematical instruments. David Brown retired in 1841.J.R.Brown invented and built in 1850 a linear dividing engine which was the first automatic machine for graduating rules in the United States. In 1851 he brought out the vernier calliper, the first application of a vernier scale in a workshop measuring tool. Lucian Sharpe was taken into partnership in 1853 and the firm became J.R.Brown \& Sharpe; in 1868 the firm was incorporated as the Brown \& Sharpe Manufacturing Company.In 1855 Brown invented a precision gear-cutting machine to make clock gears. The firm obtained in 1861 a contract to make Wilcox \& Gibbs sewing machines and gave up the manufacture of clocks. At about this time F.W. Howe of the Providence Tool Company arranged for Brown \& Sharpe to make a turret lathe required for the manufacture of muskets. This was basically Howe's design, but Brown added a few features, and it was the first machine tool built for sale by the Brown \& Sharpe Company. It was followed in 1862 by the universal milling machine invented by Brown initially for making twist drills. Particularly for cutting gear teeth, Brown invented in 1864 a formed milling cutter which could be sharpened without changing its profile. In 1867 the need for an instrument for checking the thickness of sheet material became apparent, and in August of that year J.R.Brown and L.Sharpe visited the Paris Exhibition and saw a micrometer calliper invented by Jean Laurent Palmer in 1848. They recognized its possibilities and with a few developments marketed it as a convenient, hand-held measuring instrument. Grinding lathes were made by Brown \& Sharpe in the early 1860s, and from 1868 a universal grinding machine was developed, with the first one being completed in 1876. The patent for this machine was granted after Brown's sudden death while on holiday.[br]Further ReadingJ.W.Roe, 1916, English and American Tool Builders, New Haven: Yale University Press; repub. 1926, New York and 1987, Bradley, Ill.: Lindsay Publications Inc. (further details of Brown \& Sharpe Company and their products).R.S.Woodbury, 1958, History of the Gear-Cutting Machine, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press ——, 1959, History of the Grinding Machine, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.——, 1960, History of the Milling Machine, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.RTS -
100 Crompton, Samuel
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 3 December 1753 Firwood, near Bolton, Lancashire, Englandd. 26 June 1827 Bolton, Lancashire, England[br]English inventor of the spinning mule.[br]Samuel Crompton was the son of a tenant farmer, George, who became the caretaker of the old house Hall-i-th-Wood, near Bolton, where he died in 1759. As a boy, Samuel helped his widowed mother in various tasks at home, including weaving. He liked music and made his own violin, with which he later was to earn some money to pay for tools for building his spinning mule. He was set to work at spinning and so in 1769 became familiar with the spinning jenny designed by James Hargreaves; he soon noticed the poor quality of the yarn produced and its tendency to break. Crompton became so exasperated with the jenny that in 1772 he decided to improve it. After seven years' work, in 1779 he produced his famous spinning "mule". He built the first one entirely by himself, principally from wood. He adapted rollers similar to those already patented by Arkwright for drawing out the cotton rovings, but it seems that he did not know of Arkwright's invention. The rollers were placed at the back of the mule and paid out the fibres to the spindles, which were mounted on a moving carriage that was drawn away from the rollers as the yarn was paid out. The spindles were rotated to put in twist. At the end of the draw, or shortly before, the rollers were stopped but the spindles continued to rotate. This not only twisted the yarn further, but slightly stretched it and so helped to even out any irregularities; it was this feature that gave the mule yarn extra quality. Then, after the spindles had been turned backwards to unwind the yarn from their tips, they were rotated in the spinning direction again and the yarn was wound on as the carriage was pushed up to the rollers.The mule was a very versatile machine, making it possible to spin almost every type of yarn. In fact, Samuel Crompton was soon producing yarn of a much finer quality than had ever been spun in Bolton, and people attempted to break into Hall-i-th-Wood to see how he produced it. Crompton did not patent his invention, perhaps because it consisted basically of the essential features of the earlier machines of Hargreaves and Arkwright, or perhaps through lack of funds. Under promise of a generous subscription, he disclosed his invention to the spinning industry, but was shabbily treated because most of the promised money was never paid. Crompton's first mule had forty-eight spindles, but it did not long remain in its original form for many people started to make improvements to it. The mule soon became more popular than Arkwright's waterframe because it could spin such fine yarn, which enabled weavers to produce the best muslin cloth, rivalling that woven in India and leading to an enormous expansion in the British cotton-textile industry. Crompton eventually saved enough capital to set up as a manufacturer himself and around 1784 he experimented with an improved carding engine, although he was not successful. In 1800, local manufacturers raised a sum of £500 for him, and eventually in 1812 he received a government grant of £5,000, but this was trifling in relation to the immense financial benefits his invention had conferred on the industry, to say nothing of his expenses. When Crompton was seeking evidence in 1811 to support his claim for financial assistance, he found that there were 4,209,570 mule spindles compared with 155,880 jenny and 310,516 waterframe spindles. He later set up as a bleacher and again as a cotton manufacturer, but only the gift of a small annuity by his friends saved him from dying in total poverty.[br]Further ReadingH.C.Cameron, 1951, Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Mule, London (a rather discursive biography).Dobson \& Barlow Ltd, 1927, Samuel Crompton, the Inventor of the Spinning Mule, Bolton.G.J.French, 1859, The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton, Inventor of the Spinning Machine Called the Mule, London.The invention of the mule is fully described in H. Gatling, 1970, The Spinning Mule, Newton Abbot; W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London; R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester.C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (provides a brief account).RLH
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