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21 Bergius, Friedrich Carl Rudolf
[br]b. 11 October 1884 Goldschmieden, near Breslau, Germanyd. 31 March Buenos Aires, Argentina[br][br]After studying chemistry in Breslau and Leipzig and assisting inter alia at the institute of Fritz Haber in Karlsruhe on the catalysis of ammonia under high pressure, in 1909 he went to Hannover to pursue his idea of turning coal into liquid hydrocarbon under high hydrogen pressure (200 atm) and high temperatures (470° C). As experiments with high pressure in chemical processes were still in their initial stages and the Technical University could not support him sufficiently, he set up a private laboratory to develop the methods and to construct the equipment himself. Four years later, in 1913, his process for producing liquid or organic compounds from coal was patented.The economic aspects of this process were apparent as the demand for fuels and lubricants increased more rapidly than the production of oil, and Bergius's process became even more important after the outbreak of the First World War. The Th. Goldschmidt company of Essen contracted him and tried large-scale production near Mannheim in 1914, but production failed because of the lack of capital and experience to operate with high pressure on an industrial level. Both capital and experience were provided jointly by the BASF company, which produced ammonia at Merseburg, and IG Farben, which took over the Bergius process in 1925, the same year that the synthesis of hydrocarbon had been developed by Fischer-Tropsch. Two years later, at the Leuna works, almost 100,000 tonnes of oil were produced from coal; during the following years, several more hydrogenation plants were to follow, especially in the eastern parts of Germany as well as in the Ruhr area, while the government guaranteed the costs. The Bergius process was extremely important for the supply of fuels to Germany during the Second World War, with the monthly production rate in 1943–4 being more than 700,000 tonnes. However, the plants were mostly destroyed at. the end of the war and were later dismantled.As a consequence of this success Bergius, who had gained an international reputation, went abroad to work as a consultant to several foreign governments. Experiments aiming to reduce the costs of production are still continued in some countries. By 1925, after he had solved all the principles of his process, he had turned to the production of dextrose by hydrolyzing wood with highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsNobel Prize 1931. Honorary doctorates, Heidelberg, Harvard and Hannover.Bibliography1907, "Über absolute Schwefelsäure als Lösungsmittel", unpublished thesis, Weida. 1913, Die Anwendung hoher Drucke bei chemischen Vorgängen und eine Nachbildungdes Entstehungsprozesses der Steinkohle, Halle. 1913, DRP no. 301, 231 (coal-liquefaction process).1925, "Verflüssigung der Kohle", Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 69:1313–20, 1359–62.1933, "Chemische Reaktionen unter hohem Druck", Les Prix Nobel en 1931, Stockholm, pp. 1–37.Further ReadingDeutsches Bergbau-Museum, 1985, Friedrich Bergius und die Kohleverflüssigung. Stationen einer Entwicklung, Bochum (gives a comprehensive and illustrated description of the man and the technology).H.Beck, 1982, Friedrich Bergius, ein Erfinderschicksal, Munich: Deutsches Museum (a detailed biographical description).W.Birkendfeld, 1964, Der synthetische Treibstoff 1933–1945. Ein Beitragzur nationalsozialistischen Wirtschafts-und Rüstungspolitik, Göttingen, Berlin and Frankfurt (describes the economic value of synthetic fuels for the Third Reich).WKBiographical history of technology > Bergius, Friedrich Carl Rudolf
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22 Parkes, Alexander
[br]b. 29 December 1813 Birmingham, Englandd. 29 June 1890 West Dulwich, England[br]English chemist and inventor who made the first plastic material.[br]After serving apprentice to brassfounders in Birmingham, Parkes entered Elkington's, the celebrated metalworking firm, and took charge of their casting department. They were active in introducing electroplating and Parkes's first patent, of 1841, was for the electroplating of works of art. The electrodeposition of metals became a lifelong interest.Notably, he achieved the electroplating of fragile objects, such as flowers, which he patented in 1843. When Prince Albert visited Elkington's, he was presented with a spider's web coated with silver. Altogether, Parkes was granted sixty-six patents over a period of forty-six years, mainly relating to metallurgy.In 1841 he patented a process for waterproofing textiles by immersing them in a solution of indiarubber in carbon disulphide. Elkingtons manufactured such fabrics until they sold the process to Mackintosh Company, which continued making them for many years. While working for Elkingtons in south Wales, Parkes developed the use of zinc for desilvering lead. He obtained a patent in 1850 for this process, which was one of his most important inventions and became widely used.The year 1856 saw Parkes's first patent on pyroxylin, later called Xylonite or celluloid, the first plastic material. Articles made of Parkesine, as it came to be called, were shown at the International Exhibition in London in 1862, and he was awarded a medal for his work. Five years later, Parkesine featured at the Paris Exhibition. Even so, Parkes's efforts to promote the material commercially, particularly as a substitute for ivory, remained stubbornly unsuccessful.[br]Bibliography1850, British patent no. 13118 (the desilvering of lead). 1856, British patent no. 235 (the first on Parkesine).1865, Parkes gave an account of his invention of Parkesine in J.Roy.Arts, (1865), 14, 81–.Further ReadingObituary, 1890, Engineering, (25 July): 111.Obituary, 1890, Mining Journal (26 July): 855.LRD -
23 Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich von
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities[br]b. 24 August 1772 Durlach, Baden, Germanyd. 21 May 1826 Munich, Germany[br]German engineer.[br]While he was attending the Military School at Mannheim, Reichenbach drew attention to himself due to the mathematical instruments that he had designed. On the recommendation of Count Rumford in Munich, the Bavarian government financed a two-year stay in Britain so that Reichenbach could become acquainted with modern mechanical engineering. He returned to Mannheim in 1793, and during the Napoleonic Wars he was involved in the manufacture of arms. In Munich, where he was in the service of the Bavarian state from 1796, he started producing precision instruments in his own time. His basic invention was the design of a dividing machine for circles, produced at the end of the eighteenth century. The astronomic and geodetic instruments he produced excelled all the others for their precision. His telescopes in particular, being perfect in use and of solid construction, soon brought him an international reputation. They were manufactured at the MathematicMechanical Institute, which he had jointly founded with Joseph Utzschneider and Joseph Liebherr in 1804 and which became a renowned training establishment. The glasses and lenses were produced by Joseph Fraunhofer who joined the company in 1807.In the same year he was put in charge of the technical reorganization of the salt-works at Reichenhall. After he had finished the brine-transport line from Reichenhall to Traunstein in 1810, he started on the one from Berchtesgaden to Reichenhall which was an extremely difficult task because of the mountainous area that had to be crossed. As water was the only source of energy available he decided to use water-column engines for pumping the brine in the pipes of both lines. Such devices had been in use for pumping purposes in different mining areas since the middle of the eighteenth century. Reichenbach knew about the one constructed by Joseph Karl Hell in Slovakia, which in principle had just been a simple piston-pump driven by water which did not work satisfactorily. Instead he constructed a really effective double-action water-column engine; this was a short time after Richard Trevithick had constructed a similar machine in England. For the second line he improved the system and built a single-action pump. All the parts of it were made of metal, which made them easy to produce, and the pumps proved to be extremely reliable, working for over 100 years.At the official opening of the line in 1817 the Bavarian king rewarded him generously. He remained in the state's service, becoming head of the department for roads and waterways in 1820, and he contributed to the development of Bavarian industry as well as the public infrastructure in many ways as a result of his mechanical skill and his innovative engineering mind.[br]Further ReadingBauernfeind, "Georg von Reichenbach" Allgemeine deutsche Biographie 27:656–67 (a reliable nineteenth-century account).W.Dyck, 1912, Georg v. Reichenbach, Munich.K.Matschoss, 1941, Grosse Ingenieure, Munich and Berlin, 3rd edn. 121–32 (a concise description of his achievements in the development of optical instruments and engineering).WKBiographical history of technology > Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich von
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24 decaer
v.1 to decline.¡que no decaiga! don't lose heart!su belleza no ha decaído con los años her beauty has not faded with the yearsLa intensidad decae con el tiempo Intensity wanes in time.2 to decay, to fall into decline.El entusiasmo decayó desde el evento Enthusiasm decayed since the event.3 to be losing.Nos decayó el juego We were losing the game.4 to decrease, to dwindle.Me decayó el negocio My business decreased.* * *1 (perder fuerzas) to weaken; (- entusiasmo, interés) to flag; (- salud) to go down, deteriorate, decay; (- belleza etc) to lose2 (imperio, costumbre) to decay3 (fiebre) to go down4 (negocio) to fall off, decline5 (ánimo) to lose heart* * *verb1) to decline, decay2) weaken* * *VI1) [imperio, país] to declinedesde que cerraron la fábrica el pueblo ha decaído — since they closed the factory the town has gone downhill
2) (=disminuir) [entusiasmo, interés] to wane, fade (away); [esperanzas] to fade¡ánimo, que no decaiga! — bear up, don't lose heart!
¡que no decaiga la fiesta! — come on, let's keep the party going!
3) (=empeorar) [salud] to fail, decline; [enfermo] to deteriorate, fail4) (Com) [demanda] to fall off; [calidad] to decline, fall off5)decaer en algo: ha decaído en belleza — her beauty has faded
su fuerza dramática decae en intensidad al final — its dramatic force declines in intensity at the end
6) (Náut) to drift, drift off course* * *verbo intransitivoa) ánimo/fuerzas to flag; interés/popularidad to waneb) barrio/restaurante to go downhill; calidad/prestigio to declinec) imperio/civilización to decay, declined) enfermo to deteriorate* * *= lapse, flag, ebb.Ex. The first weeks are vital, and after that the shop must be constantly on the lookout for ways of stimulating further interest and re-awakening those who lapse.Ex. But more mature readers can be expected to go on reading for full sessions without flagging, a point that most children should reach by ten years old.Ex. Subsequently, library development stalled as cultural interaction ebbed from classical levels.----* interés + decaer = interest + flag.* * *verbo intransitivoa) ánimo/fuerzas to flag; interés/popularidad to waneb) barrio/restaurante to go downhill; calidad/prestigio to declinec) imperio/civilización to decay, declined) enfermo to deteriorate* * *= lapse, flag, ebb.Ex: The first weeks are vital, and after that the shop must be constantly on the lookout for ways of stimulating further interest and re-awakening those who lapse.
Ex: But more mature readers can be expected to go on reading for full sessions without flagging, a point that most children should reach by ten years old.Ex: Subsequently, library development stalled as cultural interaction ebbed from classical levels.* interés + decaer = interest + flag.* * *vi1 «ánimo/fuerzas» to flag; «interés/popularidad» to wane, fall off, diminish¡que no decaiga! keep it up!el ritmo de trabajo ha decaído considerablemente the work rate has fallen off o declined considerably2 «barrio/restaurante» to go downhill; «calidad/popularidad» to declineel prestigio de la compañía ha decaído mucho the company's prestige has declined o waned considerably3 «imperio/civilización» to decay, decline4 «enfermo» to deteriorate* * *
decaer ( conjugate decaer) verbo intransitivo
[ enfermo] to deteriorate;
[interés/popularidad] to waneb) [barrio/restaurante] to go downhill;
[calidad/prestigio] to decline
decaer verbo intransitivo
1 (la energía, la salud, etc) to deteriorate
2 (en fuerza, intensidad) to decline: la minería ha decaído mucho en la última década, the mining industry has been in decline for the last ten years
' decaer' also found in these entries:
English:
decline
- fall off
- flag
- lapse
- sag
- slip
- slump
- wane
- decay
- decrease
- droop
- ebb
- fade
- fall
- falter
- rot
- sink
- slacken
- subside
- taper
* * *decaer vi1. [debilitarse] to decline;[actividad, ritmo, trabajo] to fall off, to slacken; [entusiasmo, ánimos, energías] to flag; [interés, fama] to decline, to wane;su belleza no ha decaído con los años her beauty has not faded with age;¡que no decaiga! don't lose heart!2. [imperio, sociedad] to decline;[empresa, establecimiento, zona] to go downhill;la fiesta fue decayendo the party gradually fizzled out3. [enfermo] to get weaker;[salud] to fail* * ** * *decaer {13} vi1) : to decline, to decay, to deteriorate2) flaquear: to weaken, to flag -
25 Gesner, Abraham
SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology[br]b. 1797 Englandd. 1864[br]English pioneer in the extraction of paraffin.[br]Gesner qualified as a physician in London in 1827 and developed an interest in geology. Possibly through his friendship with Admiral Thomas Cochrane, later tenth Earl of Dundonald, he began experimenting with asphalt rock from Trinidad; he obtained several patents for the processes he employed to extract an oil from the rock. In 1853 the Asphalt Mining and Kerosene Company was founded to work his patents, which described how to purify the liquid produced by the dry distillation of asphalt, by mixing the liquid first with 5–10 per cent by volume of sulphuric acid to remove tars, and then with freshly calcined lime to remove water. It was then redistilled to produce an inflammable oil. Gesner called it kerosene, from the Greek keros, meaning "wax"; in Britain it came to be known as paraffin. The new oil sold well, especially when accompanied by a cheap lamp with a flat wick and glass chimney. By 1856 Gesner considered his product could replace whale oil as a fuel for lamps; success was short-lived, however, for the oil was overtaken three years later by the drilling of the first American petroleum wells.LRD -
26 Izod, Edwin Gilbert
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 17 July 1876 Portsmouth, Englandd. 2 October 1946 England[br]English engineer who devised the notched-bar impact test named after him.[br]After a general education at Vickery's School at Southsea, Izod (who pronounced his name Izzod, not Izod) started his career as a premium apprentice at the works of Maudslay, Sons and Field at Lambeth in January 1893. When in 1995 he was engaged in the installation of machinery in HMS Renown at Pembroke, he gained some notoriety for his temerity in ordering Rear Admiral J.A.Fisher, who had no pass, out of the main engine room. He subsequently worked at Portsmouth Dockyard where the battleships Caesar and Gladiator were being engined by Maudslay's. From 1898 to 1900 Izod worked as a Demonstrator in the laboratories of University College London, and he was then engaged by Captain H. Riall Sankey as his Personal Assistant at the Rugby works of Willans and Robinson. Soon after going to Rugby, Izod was asked by Sankey to examine a failed gun barrel and try to ascertain why it burst in testing. Conventional mechanical testing did not reveal any significant differences in the properties of good and bad material. Izod found, however, that, when specimens from the burst barrel were notched, gripped in a vice, and then struck with a hammer they broke in a brittle manner, whereas sounder material merely bent plastically. From these findings his well-known notched-bar impact test emerged. His address to the British Association in September 1903 described the test and his testing machine, and was subsequently published in Engineering. Izod never claimed any priority for this method of test, and generously acknowledged his predecessors in this field, Swedenborg, Fremont, Arnold and Bent Russell. The Izod Test was rapidly adopted by the English-speaking world, although Izod himself, being a busy man, did little to publicize his work, which was introduced to the engineering world largely through the efforts of Captain Sankey. Izod became Assistant Managing Director at Willans, and in 1910 was appointed Chief Consulting Mechanical and Electrical Engineer to the Central Mining Corporation at Johannesburg. He became Managing Director of the Rand Mines in 1918, and returned to the UK in 1927 to become the Managing Director of Weymann Motor Bodies Ltd of Addlestone. As Chairman of this company he extended its activitiesconsiderably.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsMBE. Member of the Iron and Steel Institute.Further Reading1903, "Testing brittleness of steel", Engineering (25 September): 431–2.ASD -
27 szk|oda
Ⅰ f 1. (strata, uszczerbek) loss- szkody materialne/moralne material/moral losses- szkody polityczne political damage- szkody w ludziach były ogromne there was great loss of life- doznać szkód w sprzęcie to suffer losses in equipment- wyrządzić a. spowodować szkodę to do a. cause damage- wichura narobiła wiele szkód the windstorm caused substantial damage- szkody spowodowane przez burzę/mróz storm/frost damage- mogła się opalać bez szkody dla zdrowia cały dzień she could sit in the sun all day without any harmful effects a. without detriment to her health- najwyraźniej szkody spowodowane były przez kozy the damage was obviously the work of goats- zarzucono ministrowi, że działał na szkodę państwa the minister was accused of acting to the detriment of the state- modernizacja naszej firmy przyniosła same szkody the modernization of our company only brought harm to it2. (w polu) schwytać kozę/konia w szkodzie to catch a straying goat/horse- wygnać krowę ze szkody to chase away a stray cow- zająć komuś konia w szkodzie to impound a (stray) horse- nasza krowa znów poszła w szkodę our cow’s gone off and caused damage againⅡ praed. jaka szkoda! what a pity!- szkoda zachodu it’s not worth the trouble- szkoda wysiłku it’s a waste of effort- szkoda mi jego matki I feel sorry for his mother- szkoda marnować czas na wyjaśnianie it’s a waste of time trying to explain it- szkoda pieniędzy na… it’s no use wasting money on…- szkoda gadać! what can I say!- szkoda łez! nothing doing!- szkoda słów waste of breath a. words- szkoda, że nie możesz zostać do jutra I wish you could stay till tomorrow- szkoda, że już się kończą wakacje it’s a pity a. it’s a shame that the holidays are nearly over- co za szkoda, że dziś pada deszcz what a pity that it’s raining today- wielka szkoda, że się nie zobaczymy w święta it’s too bad that we won’t see each other at Christmas- chodźmy już, bo szkoda każdej chwili let’s go now, let’s not waste a single moment- □ szkoda górnicza Górn. mining damage- szkoda łowiecka Myślis. damage caused by huntingThe New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > szk|oda
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