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1 THEY, THEM
(3rd person pl. and dual forms): As the pronominal ending for “they”, Tolkien hesitated between -ltë and -ntë. For instance, a verb like “they do” is attested both as cariltë and carintë (VT49:16, 17). In one text, the ending -ltë is marked as archaic or poetic (VT49:17), but in other paradigms no such qualification occurs (VT49:51). The alternative form -nte- occurs in UT:317, with a second pronominal marker (-s “it”, denoting the object) following: Tiruvantes "they will keep it". General considerations of euphony may favour -ltë rather than -ntë (e.g. *quenteltë rather than *quententë for “they spoke” – in the past tense, many verbs end in -ntë even before any pronominal endings are supplied, like quentë “spoke” in this example). The ending -ltë (unlike -ntë) would also conform with the general system that the plural pronominal endings include the plural marker l (VT48:11). – In Tolkien’s early material, the ending -ltë appears as -lto instead (e.g. tulielto “they have come”, LT1:270). – A simple plural verb (with ending -r) can have “they” as its implied subject, as in the example quetir en “they still say” (PE17:167). – In the independent pronouns, distinct forms of may be used depending on whether “they, them” refers to living beings (persons, animals or even plants) or to non-living things or abstracts. The “personal” independent pronoun is te, which may have a long vowel when stressed (té, VT49:51). It is also attested in object position (laita te “bless them”, LotR:989 cf. Letters:308, VT43:20). It can receive case endings, e.g. dative ten (VT49:14; variant forms téna and tien, VT49:14, VT43:12, 21). As the “impersonal” they, them referring to non-living things, Tolkien in some sources used ta (VT43:20; 8, 9), but this apparently caused dissatisfaction because he also wanted ta to be the singular pronoun “that, it”. According to VT49:32, the form tai was introduced as the word for impersonal or inanimate “they, them” (in some places changed to te, apparently suggesting that Tolkien considered using te for both personal and impersonal “they/them”, abandoning the distinction). Another source (VT49:51) lists sa as the pl. impersonal form, but all other published sources use this pronoun for singular impersonal “it”, not pl. “they”. – The object “them” can also be expressed by the ending -t following another pronominal suffix (laituvalmet, “we shall bless [or praise] them", LotR:989 cf Letters:308). Presumably this ending -t makes no distinction between personal and impersonal forms. – Quenya also possesses special dual forms of “they, them”, used where only two persons or things are referred to (none of these pronouns distinguish between personal and impersonal forms). In VT49:16, the old ending for dual “they” is given as -stë (marked as archaic or poetic), but this would clash with the corresponding 2nd person ending. According to VT49:51, this ending was changed (also within the imaginary world) from -stë to -ttë, which seems the better alternative (*carittë, “the two of them do”). The independent dual pronoun is given as tú (ibid.) However, it may also be permissible to use te for “they, them” even where only two persons are involved (te is seemingly used with reference to Frodo and Sam in one of the examples above, laita te “bless them”). – Genitive forms, see THEIR; reflexive pronoun, see THEMSELVES. -
2 BETWEEN
1) imbi (dual imbë). This is "between" referring to a gap, space, barrier, or anything intervening between two other things, like or unlike one another. The pluralized form imbi implies "among" of several things (ancalima imbi eleni "brightest among stars"); "in the sense 'among' before plurals [imbë] is usually pluralized > imbi even when a plural noun follows". As pointed out by Patrick Wynne, imbi may also be used in the sense of "between" before two singular nouns connected by "and" (as in the example imbi Menel Cemenyë "between heaven and earth"), whereas imbë is used before dual forms, as in the examples imbë siryat "between two rivers", imbë met "between us". Elided imb' is attested in the phrase imb' illi "among all". The form imbit is said to be a "dualized form" expressing "between two things" when "these are not named" (VT47:30), apparently implying that imbit by itself means *"between the two", with no noun following. 2) enel (used for "between" = "at the central position in a row, list, series, etc. but also applied to the case of three persons" [VT47:11]. This preposition refers to the position of a thing between others of the same kind). 3) mitta- (does the final hyphen suggest that the latter form is used as prefix, somewhat like *"inter-"?) –Nam/RGEO:67, VT47:11, 30; VT43:30 -
3 HE, HIM
(personal 3rd sg. pronoun): As a pronominal suffix, the entire 3rd person singular “he, she, it” is expressed by the ending -s, e.g. caris *“(s)he/it does” (VT49:16, 48). Sometimes a verb with no pronominal ending whatsoever implies a subject “he, she, it”, e.g. nornë “he ran” (PE17:58), fírië “she has breathed forth” (MR:250), tinë “it glints” (TIN). A distinctly masculine ending -ro does occur in early material (antaváro “he will give”, LR:63), but was apparently abandoned by Tolkien. The ending -s may also appear in the “rare” longer form -së (VT49:51, descended from older -sse, VT49:20), perhaps distinctly personal (cf. násë “he [or she] is” vs. nás “it is”, VT49:27, 30). The ending -s is also attested in object position, e.g. melinyes “I love him” (VT49:21; this could also mean *”I love her” or *”I love it”). “He/she” (or even “it”, when some living thing is concerned) does have a distinct form when it appears as an independent pronoun: se (VT49:37), also with a long vowel (sé, VT49:51) when stressed. (Contrast the use of sa for “it” with reference to non-living things.) The independent form may also appear in object position: melin sé, “I love him [/her]” (VT49:21). Case endings may be added, e.g. allative sena or senna “at him [/her]”, “to him/her” (VT49:14, 45-46); se also appears suffixed to a preposition in the word ósë *”with him/her” (VT43:29). A distinct pronoun hé can be used for “he/she” = “the other”, as in a sentence like “I love him (sé) but not him (hé).” Genitive HIS/HER (or ITS, of a living thing) would normally appear as the ending -rya, e.g. coarya “his house” (WJ:369), máryat “her hands” (Nam), the latter with a dual ending following -rya. “His/her” as an independent word could be *senya (compare ninya “my” vs. ni “I”, nin “for me”). – Reflexive pronoun, see HIMSELF. –VT49:16, 51, VT43:29, VT49:15, LotR:1008
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