-
21 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) uprava2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) predpis3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) pravilo4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) pravilo5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) ravnilo, merilo2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) vladati2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) odločiti3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) potegniti črto•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) odlok, razsodba- rule off
- rule out* * *I [ru:l]nounpravilo; kar je normalno, običajno; mathematics pravilo; pravilo igre; ecclesiastic pravilnik reda; predpis; juridically odločba, rešitev; pravni predpis; ravnilo; merilna vrvica; navada, običaj, pravilo; vladanje, upravljanje, upravaas a rule — navadno, praviloma, normalnoby rule, according to rule — po predpisih, po pravilihby the rule and line figuratively natančnoby rule of thumb — po izkušnji, empirično, približnogolden rule — zlata sredina, zlato pravilohard and fast rule — trdno, stalno, kruto pravilostanding rules — pravilnik, statutit is the rule that... — pravilo je, da...to hold (to bear) rule over — vladati; gospodovati, gospodariti, biti gospodar nadII [ru:l]transitive verb & intransitive verbupravljati, voditi, uravna(va)ti, usmeriti; obvladati (čustvo), brzdati; odločiti, odrediti, rešiti ( that da); postaviti načelo; naložiti, predpisati; načrtati, vleči črte z ravnilom, linirati; vladati ( over nad), prevladovati; (o cenah) stati, držati seRule Britannia — Vladaj, Britanija! (domoljubna angleška pesem)a ruled case — odločena, dognana stvarto be ruled by s.o. — biti pod vplivom kogabe ruled by me! — poslušaj, ubogaj moj nasvet!to rule the roast (roost) — biti gospodar (v hiši, doma), imeti glavno besedo, odločatito rule in s.o.'s favour — odločiti komu v pridprices ruled high (lower) — cene so bile visoke (nižje); -
22 rule
[ruːl] 1. n( norm) reguła f; ( regulation) przepis m; ( government) rządy pl, panowanie nt2. vtrządzić +instr3. vito rule (over sb/sth) — rządzić (kimś/czymś)
to rule in favour of/against/on — wydawać (wydać perf) orzeczenie na korzyść +gen /na niekorzyść +gen /w sprawie +gen
to rule that … — orzekać (orzec perf), że …
as a rule of thumb, … — można przyjąć, że …
Phrasal Verbs:- rule out* * *[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) panowanie2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) przepis3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) reguła4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) zasada5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) miara, przymiar2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) rządzić2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) zawyrokować3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) narysować (linię)•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) orzeczenie- rule off
- rule out -
23 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) stjórn2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regla3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regla, lögmál4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) regla, venja5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) reglustika, tommustokkur2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) stjórna2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) úrskurða3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) strika•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) úrskurður- rule off
- rule out -
24 rule
vonalzó, szokvány, uralkodás, szabály, szokás to rule: uralkodik, szabályoz, irányít, vonalaz, megvonalaz* * *[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) uralom2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) szabály3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) szabály4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) szokás5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) vonalzó2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) uralkodik (vkin)2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) dönt3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) (meg)vonalaz (papírt)•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) rendelkezés- rule off
- rule out -
25 rule
n. kural, talimat, kanun, prensip, hüküm, mahkeme kararı, tüzük, yönetmelik, egemenlik, idare, metre, cetvel, standart, norm, gönye————————v. yönetmek, hükmetmek, idare etmek, emretmek, sözü geçmek, saltanat sürmek, hüküm vermek, karara varmak, çizmek, çizgi çekmek, cetvelle çizmek, düzeyinde olmak, geçerli olmak* * *1. yönet (v.) 2. kural (n.)* * *[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) yönetim, idare2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) kural, yönetmelik3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) kural4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) âdet, usul5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) cetvel2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) yönetmek, idare etmek2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) karar vermek3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) çizmek•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) yargı, hüküm- rule off
- rule out -
26 rule
• ohje• ohjenuora• ohjata• normi• isännyys• isännöidä• instruktio• johtosääntö• hillitä• viivoittaa• viivainprinting (graphic) industry• viivake(kirjapainoala)• viivata• viivoitin• viiva(graafisena elementtinä)• elämänohje• valta• vallita• prinsiippi• päätös• päällikkyys• ratkaisu• ratkaista• hallitus• hallinta• hallitusaika• hallita• hallitusvalta• hallituskausi• hallitseminen• mittapuu• menetelmä• määräys• määräysvalta• määräämisvalta• määrätä• pelisääntö• malli• standardi• säädös• säännös• tapa• sääntö• kulmamitta• käskeä• käskyprinting (graphic) industry• latomaviivake• lakisäännös• lakiautomatic data processing• komento* * *ru:l 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) valta2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) sääntö3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) sääntö4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) sääntö5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) viivoitin2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) hallita2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) määrätä3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) vetää viiva•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) päätös- rule off
- rule out -
27 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) valdīšana; vara2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) likumi, noteikumi3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) likums; norma4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) paradums; princips5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) lineāls; metramērs2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) valdīt2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) noteikt; izlemt; paziņot lēmumu3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) novilkt (ar lineālu)•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) lēmums; spriedums- rule off
- rule out* * *likums, noteikums; paradums; valdīšana, vara; leņķmērs, lineāls; lēmums; statūti; plēksne; valdīt; vadīt; lemt, noteikt; sagrafēt, savilkt līnijas; turēties noteiktā līmenī -
28 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) valdžia, valdymas2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) taisyklė, nurodymas3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) taisyklė, norma4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) nuostata5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) metras2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) valdyti, viešpatauti2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) nuspręsti3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) nubrėžti•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) nutartis, sprendimas- rule off
- rule out -
29 rule
n. regel, bestämmelse, norm, vana, rättesnöre, föreskrift; herravälde; regering; tumstock; linjal--------v. styra, härska, regera; avgöra, bestämma; linjera* * *[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) styre, välde2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regel, bestämmelse, föreskrift3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regel4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) regel5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) tumstock2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) regera []2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) fastställa, avgöra, bestämma3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) dra en linje med linjal•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) utslag, avgörande- rule off
- rule out -
30 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) vláda2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) řád; předpis3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) pravidlo4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) zásada5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) pravítko, metr2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) vládnout2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) rozhodnout3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) narýsovat•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) rozhodnutí, nález- rule off
- rule out* * *• vládnout• vláda• pravidlo• panovat -
31 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) vláda2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) poriadok; predpis3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) pravidlo4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) zásada5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) skladací meter2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) vládnuť2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) rozhodnúť3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) narysovať•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) nariadenie; rozhodnutie- rule off
- rule out* * *• vládnut• vláda• predpis• ovládnut• pravidlo• linajkovat -
32 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) stăpânire2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regulă3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regulă4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) obicei5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.)2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) a conduce2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) a decide3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) a trage o linie cu rigla•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) decizie, hotărâre- rule off
- rule out -
33 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) διακυβέρνηση, κυριαρχία, εξουσία2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) κανονισμός3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) κανόνας4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) αρχή5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) μέτρο, χάρακας2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) κυβερνώ, άρχω2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) αποφασίζω, ορίζω3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) τραβώ (γραμμή), χαρακώνω•- ruled- ruler
- ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) επίσημη απόφαση- rule off
- rule out -
34 surface
1) надпочвенный2) наземный3) поверхность || поверхностный; приповерхностный4) горн. дневная поверхность5) площадь; покрытие•- assembly datum surface - bivariate normal surface - completely ramified surface - double curved surface - double ruled surface - heat exchange surface - heat transfer surface - locally polyhedral surface - semilocally one-connected surface - surface of constant width - surface of negative curvature - surface of nonnegative curvature - surface of parabolic type - surface of positive total curvature - surface of zeroth kind -
35 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) autorité2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) règlement3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) règle4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) règle5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) règle2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) gouverner2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) décider3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) tirer à la règle•- ruled- ruler - ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) décision, jugement- rule off - rule out -
36 rule
[ru:l] 1. noun1) (government: under foreign rule.) governo2) (a regulation or order: school rules.) regulamento3) (what usually happens or is done; a general principle: He is an exception to the rule that fat people are usually happy.) regra4) (a general standard that guides one's actions: I make it a rule never to be late for appointments.) regra5) (a marked strip of wood, metal etc for measuring: He measured the windows with a rule.) régua2. verb1) (to govern: The king ruled (the people) wisely.) governar2) (to decide officially: The judge ruled that the witness should be heard.) decretar3) (to draw (a straight line): He ruled a line across the page.) traçar à régua•- ruled- ruler - ruling 3. noun(an official decision: The judge gave his ruling.) decisão- rule off - rule out -
37 road
noun1) Straße, dieLondon/Shelley Road — Londoner Straße/Shelleystraße
‘road up’ — "Straßenarbeiten"
across or over the road [from us] — [bei uns od. (geh.) uns (Dat.)] gegenüber
off the road — (being repaired) in der Werkstatt; in Reparatur
one for the road — (coll.) ein Glas zum Abschied
be on the road — auf Reisen od. unterwegs sein; [Theaterensemble usw.:] auf Tournee od. (ugs.) Tour (Dat.) sein
put a vehicle on the road — ein Fahrzeug in Betrieb nehmen
2) (means of access) Weg, derset somebody on the road to ruin — jemanden ins Verderben führen
be on the right road — auf dem richtigen Weg sein
end of the road — (destination) Ziel, das; (limit) Ende, das
get in somebody's road — (coll.) jemandem in die Quere kommen (ugs.)
get out of my road! — (coll.) geh mir aus dem Weg!
4) (Amer.) see academic.ru/60118/railway">railway5) (Mining) Strecke, die6) usu. in pl. (Naut.) Reede, die* * *[rəud]1) (a strip of ground usually with a hard level surface for people, vehicles etc to travel on: This road takes you past the school; ( also adjective) road safety.) die Straße; Straßen-...2) ((often abbreviated to Rd when written) used in the names of roads or streets: His address is 24 School Road.) die Straße3) (a route; the correct road(s) to follow in order to arrive somewhere: We'd better look at the map because I'm not sure of the road.) der Weg4) (a way that leads to something: the road to peace; He's on the road to ruin.) der Weg•- roadblock- road map
- roadside
- roadway
- roadworks
- roadworthy
- roadworthiness
- by road* * *[rəʊd, AM roʊd]nis this the \road to Burlington? ist das die Straße nach Burlington?all \roads into the town were blocked by snow sämtliche Zufahrtsstraßen in die Stadt waren völlig zugeschneiton this/the other side of the \road auf dieser/der anderen Straßenseitebusy \road stark befahrene Straßedirt \road Feldweg mimpassable \road unpassierbare Straßemain \road Hauptstraße fto cross the \road die Straße überquerenI live in 77 Mill R\road ich wohne in der Mill Road [Nr.] 77to be on the \road to recovery sich akk auf dem Wege der Besserung befindento be on the right \road auf dem richtigen Weg sein8.▶ by \road mit dem Auto/Bus/LKW▶ to come to the end of the \road zu Ende seinmy relationship with Ann has come to the end of the \road mit Ann ist Schluss fam▶ \road to Damascus prägendes, einschneidendes Erlebnismeeting Martin Luther King was a \road to Damascus for many people die Begegnung mit Martin Luther King war für viele Menschen ein Erlebnis, das ihr Leben entscheidend geprägt hat▶ the \road to hell is paved with good intentions ( saying) der Weg zur Hölle ist mit guten Absichten gepflastert hum▶ to be on the \road (performing at different venues) auf Tournee sein; (travelling by road) unterwegs sein; (fit for driving) straßentauglich sein* * *[rəʊd]n1) Straße f"road up" (Brit) — "Straßenbauarbeiten"
"road narrows" — "Straßenverengung"
she lives across the road ( from us) — sie wohnt gegenüber (von uns)
my car has never been/is never off the road — mein Auto war noch nie/ist nie in der Werkstatt
I hope to put the car back on the road soon — ich hoffe, das Auto bald wieder fahren zu können
he is a danger on the road — er ist eine Gefahr für den Straßenverkehr
to take to the road — sich auf den Weg machen, losfahren; (as tramp) Vagabund werden
is this the road to London? —
"Westlands/London road" — "Westlandsstraße/Londoner Straße"
on the road to ruin/success — auf dem Weg ins Verderben/zum Erfolg
somewhere along the road he changed his mind —
you're in my road ( Brit dial inf ) — du bist mir im Weg
See:= anyhow4)See:= railroad* * *road [rəʊd] s1. (Land)Straße f:across the road gegenüber;a) auf dem Straßenweg,b) mit dem Auto etc;a) im oder durchs Gelände,b) in der Werkstatt;take one’s car off the road sein Auto abmelden;a) auf der Straße,b) ( besonders geschäftlich) unterwegs, auf Reisen, auf Achse,c) THEAT etc auf Tournee oder umg Tour;get a play on the road mit einem Stück auf Tournee gehen;b) ein Tramp werden;hold the road well AUTO eine gute Straßenlage haben;“road up” „Straßenarbeiten!“;it is a long road that has no turning (Sprichwort) alles muss sich einmal ändern; → Damascus, Rome A2. BAHNa) Br Strecke fb) US Bahn f3. fig Weg m:be in sb’s road jemandem im Weg stehen;get sth out of the road etwas aus dem Weg räumen;the road to ruin (to success) der Weg ins Verderben (zum Erfolg)4. meist pl SCHIFF Reede f:lie in the roads auf der Reede liegenr. abk1. radius r2. rare3. recipe4. river5. road Str.6. ruledrd. abk1. road Str.3. round* * *noun1) Straße, diethe Birmingham/London road — die Straße nach Birmingham/London; (name of road/street)
London/Shelley Road — Londoner Straße/Shelleystraße
‘road up’ — "Straßenarbeiten"
across or over the road [from us] — [bei uns od. (geh.) uns (Dat.)] gegenüber
by road — (by car/bus) per Auto/Bus; (by lorry/truck) per Lkw
off the road — (being repaired) in der Werkstatt; in Reparatur
one for the road — (coll.) ein Glas zum Abschied
be on the road — auf Reisen od. unterwegs sein; [Theaterensemble usw.:] auf Tournee od. (ugs.) Tour (Dat.) sein
2) (means of access) Weg, derend of the road — (destination) Ziel, das; (limit) Ende, das
3) (one's way) Weg, derget in somebody's road — (coll.) jemandem in die Quere kommen (ugs.)
get out of my road! — (coll.) geh mir aus dem Weg!
4) (Amer.) see railway5) (Mining) Strecke, die6) usu. in pl. (Naut.) Reede, die* * *(nautical) n.Reede -n f. n.Autostraße f.Straße -n f.Weg -e m. -
38 surface
1) поверхность
2) надпочвенный
3) склоновый
4) химико-термический
5) наземный
6) поверхностный
7) приповерхностный
8) тонкослойный
– abrasive surface
– active surface
– base surface
– bench surface
– boundary surface
– canal surface
– cap of a surface
– catenary surface
– caustic surface
– cleavage surface
– closed surface
– combustion surface
– contact surface
– contoured surface
– control surface
– cooling surface
– covering surface
– cropping out to surface
– crystallization surface
– curved surface
– daturence surface
– day surface
– developable surface
– developed surface
– discontinuity surface
– disrupt surface
– dull surface
– equiphase surface
– equipotential surface
– evaporation surface
– Fermi surface
– finned surface
– free surface
– friction surface
– frontal surface
– helical surface
– indifference surface
– intersecting surface
– ion-exchange surface
– level surface
– lifting surface
– load-bearing surface
– location surface
– mated surface
– median surface
– mirror surface
– modular surface
– mounting surface
– nodal surface
– one-sided surface
– pertaining to surface
– planation surface
– plane surface
– platen surface
– potential surface
– pseudospherical surface
– quintic surface
– rectifiable surface
– reducible surface
– reflecting surface
– regression surface
– response surface
– Riemann surface
– rippled surface
– roll surface
– rolled surface
– rough surface
– ruled surface
– rumpled surface
– running surface
– sea surface clutter
– separation surface
– sliding surface
– smooth surface
– squarable surface
– strain surface
– stress surface
– surface activity
– surface area
– surface attemperator
– surface cleaning
– surface color
– surface combustion
– surface condenser
– surface contact
– surface contour
– surface cooling
– surface discharge
– surface displacement
– surface effect
– surface element
– surface emittance
– surface energy
– surface film
– surface finish
– surface finishing
– surface generation
– surface gravimeter
– surface hardening
– surface impregnation
– surface integral
– surface ionization
– surface irrigation
– surface leak
– surface lumber
– surface mat
– surface mounting
– surface of fracture
– surface of revolution
– surface reaction
– surface resistance
– surface resistivity
– surface run-off
– surface strength
– surface stress
– surface switch
– surface temperature
– surface tension
– surface vessel
– surface water
– surface wave
– surface worker
– tooth surface
– true surface
– upslide surface
– water surface
– water-cooled surface
– wetted surface
absolute property of a surface — <geom.> свойство поверхности внутреннее
aerodynamic control surface — руль управления аэродинамический
coefficient of surface expansion — коэффициент поверхностного расширения
high-speed surface transportation — < railways> транспорт наземный высокоскоростной
nappe of a conical surface — <geom.> полость конической поверхности
non-developable ruled surface — поверхность линейчатая косая, косая линейчатая поверхность
rate of evaporation per surface — интенсивность парообразования
sectorial surface harmonic — секториальная сферическая функция
spline surface technique — метод аппроксимации отображаемых поверхностей сплайнами
surface contact rectifier — вентиль с поверхностным контактом
surface plastic deformation — деформирование пластическое поверхностное
surface wave line — < radio> линия поверхностной волны
tesseral surface harmonic — тессеральная сферическая функция
universal covering surface — универсальная поверхность наложения
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39 World War II
(1939-1945)In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). -
40 Krupp, Alfred
[br]b. 26 April 1812 Essen, Germanyd. 14 July 1887 Bredeney, near Essen, Germany[br]German manufacturer of steel and armaments.[br]Krupp's father founded a small cast-steel works at Essen, but at his early death in 1826 the firm was left practically insolvent to his sons. Alfred's formal education ended at that point and he entered the ailing firm. The expansion of trade brought about by the Zollverein, or customs union, enabled him to increase output, and by 1843 he had 100 workers under him, making steel springs and machine parts. Five years later he was able to buy out his co-heirs, and in 1849 he secured his first major railway contract. The quality of his product was usefully advertised by displaying a flawless 2-ton steel ingot at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Krupp was then specializing in the manufacture of steel parts for railways and steamships, notably a weldless steel tire for locomotives, from which was derived the three-ring emblem of the Krupp concern. Krupp made a few cannon from 1847 but sold his first to the Khedive of Egypt in 1857. Two years later he won a major order of 312 cannon from the Prussian Government. With the development of this side of the business, he became the largest steel producer in Europe. In 1862 he adopted the Bessemer steelmaking process. The quality and design of his cannon were major factors in the victory of the Prussian artillery bombardment at Sedan in the Franco- Prussian War of 1870. Krupp expanded further during the boom years of the early 1870s and he was able to gain control of German coal and Spanish iron-ore supplies. He went on to manufacture heavy artillery, with a celebrated testing ground at Osnabrück. By this time he had a workforce of 21,000, whom he ruled with benevolent but strict control. His will instructed that the firm should not be divided.[br]Further ReadingP.Batty, 1966, The House of Krupp (includes a bibliography). G.von Klass, 1954, Krupp: The Story of an Industrial Empire.LRD
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