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the+sorbonne

  • 1 The Sorbonne Declaration

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > The Sorbonne Declaration

  • 2 study at the Sorbonne

    Общая лексика: учиться в Сорбонне

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > study at the Sorbonne

  • 3 Sorbonne

    la Sorbonne sɔʀbɔn nfpr the Sorbonne
    * * *
    Sorbonne: nfpr la Sorbonne the Sorbonne.
    La Sorbonne Founded in 1253 by Robert de Sorbon as a theological college, the Sorbonne is the oldest and best-known university institution in France. It is located in the centre of Paris in the Quartier Latin and houses l'Université Paris IV.
    [sɔrbɔn] nom propre féminin

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > Sorbonne

  • 4 Sorbonne, la

       One of the world's oldest universities, founded in 1257. The Sorbonne is, historically, the University of Paris. Following the breaking up of the huge university of Paris in 1970, into thirteen smaller (but still large) universities, the word "Sorbonne" was kept in the name of four of the new establishments, and specifically in the university now known as "Université deParis IV - Sorbonne". This is the top-ranking Paris university for the fields of arts and social sciences. The three other "Sorbonne" universities are Paris IIISorbonne nouvelle (arts and social sicences), Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne (Law, economics and human sciences), and Université de Paris V - Descartes, Sorbonne (Medecine, maths, law and social sciences). These four universities share the historic Latin quarter university buildings, but also have campuses, teaching-blocks, libraries and research facilities throughout Paris and the inner suburbs. See higher education in France.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Sorbonne, la

  • 5 sorbonne

    n. f. 'Bean', 'bonce', head (literally the seat of knowledge). 'y en a plus qu'il en faut dans sa sorbonne! He's got what it takes up top!

    Dictionary of Modern Colloquial French > sorbonne

  • 6 La Sorbonne

    Founded in 1253 by Robert de Sorbon as a theological college, the Sorbonne is the oldest and best-known university institution in France. It is located in the centre of Paris in the Quartier Latin and houses l'Université Paris IV

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > La Sorbonne

  • 7 Arrondissement

       The word used to define the administrative districts of the major French cities, notably Paris, Lyon and Marseilles. The city of Paris (that is Paris within the limits of the old walls and the modern boulevard périphérique) is divided into 20 arrondissements, numbered clockwise and in concentric circles from the centre. Probably the two most famous arondissements are the fifth, containing the Latin quarter and the Sorbonne, and the sixteenth, the most affluent district of central Paris. Each arrondissement has its local council and its mayor, as well as its town hall orhotel de ville.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Arrondissement

  • 8 Latin quarter

       the old student quarter of Paris situated on the left bank of the Seine, around the Sorbonne university.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Latin quarter

  • 9

    ou [u]
    avec ou sans sucre ? with or without sugar?
    as-tu des frères ou des sœurs ? have you got any brothers or sisters?
    ou... ou either... or
    * * *
    u
    1) ( choix) or

    tu pourrais lui offrir un collier, ou (bien) une montre — you could give her a necklace, or (else) a watch

    tu te moques de moi ou quoi? — (colloq) are you making fun of me or what?

    tu peux venir me prendre chez moi, ou alors on s'attend devant le cinéma — you can pick me up at home or else we'll meet outside the cinema

    fatigué ou pas, il faut bien rentrer à la maison — tired or not, we have to go home

    2) ( choix unique) or

    ou (bien)... ou (bien)... — either... or...

    ou bien il est très timide, ou il est très impoli — he's either very shy or very rude

    3) ( évaluation) or
    * * *
    u conj
    or

    ou... ou (= soit) — either... or

    ou bien (= sinon) — or, or else

    On pourrait aller au cinéma ou bien rentrer directement. — We could go to the cinema or else go straight home.

    * * *
    ou conj
    1 ( choix) or; désirez-vous boire de la bière ou (bien) du vin? would you like to drink beer or wine?; tu pourrais lui offrir un collier, ou (bien) une montre you could give her a necklace, or (else) a watch; tu entres ou tu sors? are you coming in or are you going out?; est-ce que tu viens ou pas? are you coming or not?; Istanbul ou Constantinople Istanbul or Constantinople; tu te moques de moi ou quoi? are you making fun of me or what?; donnons-nous rendez-vous à la Sorbonne, ou plutôt non, au Panthéon let's meet at the Sorbonne, or rather at the Pantheon; je me contenterais d'un petit appartement ou même d'une chambre I would be happy with a small apartment, or even just a room; tu peux venir me prendre chez moi, ou alors on s'attend devant le cinéma you can pick me up at home or else we'll meet outside the cinema; fatigué ou pas, il faut bien rentrer à la maison tired or not, we have to go home; que ça vous plaise ou non whether you like it or not; je peux vous proposer du gin, du cognac ou (encore) de la vodka I can offer you gin, brandy or vodka;
    2 ( choix unique) or; ou (bien)… ou (bien)… either… or…; ou (bien) vous éteignez votre cigarette, ou (bien) vous sortez either you put out your cigarette or you leave the room; ou bien il est très timide, ou il est très impoli he's either very shy or very rude; de deux choses l'une, ou il est étourdi ou (bien) il est bête it's one of two things, he's either absent-minded or he's stupid;
    3 ( évaluation) or; il y avait trois ou quatre cents personnes dans la salle there were three or four hundred people in the room; ils vont rester deux ou trois jours they'll stay two or three days.
    [u] pronom relatif
    1. [dans l'espace] where
    d'où j'étais, je voyais la cathédrale from where I was, I could see the cathedral
    2. [dans le temps]
    à l'époque où... in the days when...
    là où je ne vous suis plus, c'est lorsque vous dites... the bit where I lose track is when you say...
    dans l'état où elle est in her state, in the state she is
    ————————
    [u] adverbe relatif
    1. [dans l'espace] where
    [avec 'que']
    par où que tu passes whichever route you take, whichever way you go
    où je ne le comprends pas, c'est lorsque... where I don't understand him is when...
    ————————
    [u] adverbe interrogatif
    par où voulez-vous passer? which way do you want to go?, which route do you want to take?
    par où commencer? where to begin?, where should I begin?
    où voulez-vous en venir? what point are you trying to make?, what are you trying to say?
    ————————
    d'où locution conjonctive
    d'où on conclut que... which leads us ou one to the conclusion that...
    d'où il suit que... from which it follows that...
    je ne savais pas qu'il était déjà arrivé, d'où ma surprise I didn't know that he'd already arrived, which is why I was so surprised

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais >

  • 10 ou

    ou [u]
    avec ou sans sucre ? with or without sugar?
    as-tu des frères ou des sœurs ? have you got any brothers or sisters?
    ou... ou either... or
    * * *
    u
    1) ( choix) or

    tu pourrais lui offrir un collier, ou (bien) une montre — you could give her a necklace, or (else) a watch

    tu te moques de moi ou quoi? — (colloq) are you making fun of me or what?

    tu peux venir me prendre chez moi, ou alors on s'attend devant le cinéma — you can pick me up at home or else we'll meet outside the cinema

    fatigué ou pas, il faut bien rentrer à la maison — tired or not, we have to go home

    2) ( choix unique) or

    ou (bien)... ou (bien)... — either... or...

    ou bien il est très timide, ou il est très impoli — he's either very shy or very rude

    3) ( évaluation) or
    * * *
    u conj
    or

    ou... ou (= soit) — either... or

    ou bien (= sinon) — or, or else

    On pourrait aller au cinéma ou bien rentrer directement. — We could go to the cinema or else go straight home.

    * * *
    ou conj
    1 ( choix) or; désirez-vous boire de la bière ou (bien) du vin? would you like to drink beer or wine?; tu pourrais lui offrir un collier, ou (bien) une montre you could give her a necklace, or (else) a watch; tu entres ou tu sors? are you coming in or are you going out?; est-ce que tu viens ou pas? are you coming or not?; Istanbul ou Constantinople Istanbul or Constantinople; tu te moques de moi ou quoi? are you making fun of me or what?; donnons-nous rendez-vous à la Sorbonne, ou plutôt non, au Panthéon let's meet at the Sorbonne, or rather at the Pantheon; je me contenterais d'un petit appartement ou même d'une chambre I would be happy with a small apartment, or even just a room; tu peux venir me prendre chez moi, ou alors on s'attend devant le cinéma you can pick me up at home or else we'll meet outside the cinema; fatigué ou pas, il faut bien rentrer à la maison tired or not, we have to go home; que ça vous plaise ou non whether you like it or not; je peux vous proposer du gin, du cognac ou (encore) de la vodka I can offer you gin, brandy or vodka;
    2 ( choix unique) or; ou (bien)… ou (bien)… either… or…; ou (bien) vous éteignez votre cigarette, ou (bien) vous sortez either you put out your cigarette or you leave the room; ou bien il est très timide, ou il est très impoli he's either very shy or very rude; de deux choses l'une, ou il est étourdi ou (bien) il est bête it's one of two things, he's either absent-minded or he's stupid;
    3 ( évaluation) or; il y avait trois ou quatre cents personnes dans la salle there were three or four hundred people in the room; ils vont rester deux ou trois jours they'll stay two or three days.
    [u] conjonction
    1. [indiquant une alternative ou une équivalence] or
    2. [indiquant une approximation] or
    3. [indiquant la conséquence] or (else)
    rends-le moi, ou ça ira très mal give it back, or (else) there'll be trouble
    ————————
    ou (bien)... ou (bien) locution correlative
    either... or
    ou bien tu viens et tu es aimable, ou bien tu restes chez toi! either you come along and be nice, or you stay at home!
    ou tu viens, ou tu restes, mais tu arrêtes de te plaindre you (can) either come or stay, but stop complaining!

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > ou

  • 11 graduate

    1 noun ['grædʒʊət]
    (a) University licencié(e) m,f, diplômé(e) m,f; American School bachelier(ère) m,f;
    biology graduate licencié(e) m,f en biologie;
    she's an Oxford graduate or a graduate of Oxford elle a fait ses études à Oxford
    (b) American (container) récipient m gradué
    ['grædʒʊət] University diplômé, licencié
    3 intransitive verb ['grædjʊeɪt]
    (a) University obtenir son diplôme/sa licence; American School obtenir le ou être reçu au baccalauréat;
    she graduated from the Sorbonne elle a un diplôme de la Sorbonne;
    he graduated in linguistics il a une licence de linguistique;
    I graduated in 1999 j'ai eu ma licence en 1999;
    American School to graduate from high school terminer ses études secondaires
    (b) (gain promotion) être promu, passer;
    to graduate from sth to sth passer de qch à qch;
    he graduated from the post of foreman to that of manager il est passé du poste de contremaître à celui de directeur;
    familiar figurative I've graduated from cheap plonk to good wines je suis passé du gros rouge aux bons vins
    4 transitive verb ['grædjʊeɪt]
    (a) (calibrate) graduer;
    the ruler is graduated in millimetres la règle est graduée en millimètres
    (b) (change, improvement) graduer;
    the teacher graduated the exercises le professeur a gradué les exercices
    (c) American School & University conférer ou accorder un diplôme à
    ►► graduate entry échelon m d'entrée pour les diplômés;
    American University Graduate Management Admissions Test = test d'admission dans le deuxième cycle de l'enseignement supérieur aux États-Unis;
    American University Graduate Record Exam = test de niveau avant l'entrée dans une "graduate school";
    American University graduate school = école où l'on poursuit ses études après la licence;
    University graduate student étudiant(e) m,f de deuxième/troisième cycle;
    American University graduate studies études fpl de troisième cycle;
    graduate training scheme programme m de formation professionnelle pour les diplômés
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Graduate' Webb, Nichols 'Le Lauréat'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > graduate

  • 12 sorbonnard

    sorbonnard, sorbonnarde nm,f students' slang student or teacher at the Sorbonne.
    ( féminin sorbonnarde) [sɔrbɔnar, ard] (familier) adjectif
    [esprit] niggling, pedantic
    ————————
    , sorbonnarde [sɔrbɔnar, ard] (familier) nom masculin, nom féminin
    [professeur] Sorbonne academic
    [étudiant] Sorbonne student

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > sorbonnard

  • 13 Cорбонская декларация

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Cорбонская декларация

  • 14 Soixante-huit

    , or 68
       the milestone year in French life and politics in the second half of the 20th century, when protests by students and workers almost brought down the French government, and led to sweeping changes in French society. The events of 68 were inspired and led by the young generation of the time, wishing to break out of the rather stuffy and conventional society of the time. They coincided with, though initially took a different form to, the 'youth revolution' in Britain and the USA; but while the UK's youth revolution was essentially social and cultural, and led by pop music and op art, France's revolution was political and cultural, a protest against the weight of the Gaullist state.
       The events of May 68 started on the drab concrete campus of the sprawling university of Nanterre in the northern suburbs of Paris, and quickly spread to other universities, notably the Sorbonne. Student leaders, among them DanielCohn- Bendit and Alain Krivine, called for radical change and the end of the 'bourgeois state'; students erected barricades in the Latin Quarter, and were soon joined by workers, notably from the huge Renault plant at Boulogne Billancourt in the Paris suburbs. Though political, the movement sidelined all existing political parties, including the Communists, considered by the new left-wing as being an 'obsolete' political force.
       Faced with turmoil on the streets and a partial collapse of French society, President de Gaulle fled to Germany on 29th May, before returning and promising new elections. But by the time the elections took place, theGrenelle agreements had been negotiated with the trade unions, the heat had died down, and many French people had become seriously alarmed by the turn of events. In the June elections, the Gaullist majority was returned to power with an increased majority.
       The events nevertheless marked the beginning of the end for de Gaulle. In 1969 he organised a referendum on decentralisation, promising to step down if the referendum failed. To a certain extent, de Gaulle's vision of decentralisation was not that wanted by the voters; but in addition, the referendum became seen as a plebiscite on the Gaullist system, rather than on decentralisation. The referendum proposal was rejected by 52.4% of voters, and de Gaulle stepped down.
       It is certain that a new France, less hide-bound, more emancipated and more free, emerged in the aftermath of 68. Whether this would have happened anyway, and whether the means justified the end, are questions about which there is still considerable debate in France to this day.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Soixante-huit

  • 15 Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi

    [br]
    b. 1 June 1796 Paris, France
    d. 24 August 1831 Paris, France
    [br]
    French laid the foundations for modern thermodynamics through his book Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu when he stated that the efficiency of an engine depended on the working substance and the temperature drop between the incoming and outgoing steam.
    [br]
    Sadi was the eldest son of Lazare Carnot, who was prominent as one of Napoleon's military and civil advisers. Sadi was born in the Palais du Petit Luxembourg and grew up during the Napoleonic wars. He was tutored by his father until in 1812, at the minimum age of 16, he entered the Ecole Polytechnique to study stress analysis, mechanics, descriptive geometry and chemistry. He organized the students to fight against the allies at Vincennes in 1814. He left the Polytechnique that October and went to the Ecole du Génie at Metz as a student second lieutenant. While there, he wrote several scientific papers, but on the Restoration in 1815 he was regarded with suspicion because of the support his father had given Napoleon. In 1816, on completion of his studies, Sadi became a second lieutenant in the Metz engineering regiment and spent his time in garrison duty, drawing up plans of fortifications. He seized the chance to escape from this dull routine in 1819 through an appointment to the army general staff corps in Paris, where he took leave of absence on half pay and began further courses of study at the Sorbonne, Collège de France, Ecole des Mines and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He was inter-ested in industrial development, political economy, tax reform and the fine arts.
    It was not until 1821 that he began to concentrate on the steam-engine, and he soon proposed his early form of the Carnot cycle. He sought to find a general solution to cover all types of steam-engine, and reduced their operation to three basic stages: an isothermal expansion as the steam entered the cylinder; an adiabatic expansion; and an isothermal compression in the condenser. In 1824 he published his Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, which was well received at the time but quickly forgotten. In it he accepted the caloric theory of heat but pointed out the impossibility of perpetual motion. His main contribution to a correct understanding of a heat engine, however, lay in his suggestion that power can be produced only where there exists a temperature difference due "not to an actual consumption of caloric but to its transportation from a warm body to a cold body". He used the analogy of a water-wheel with the water falling around its circumference. He proposed the true Carnot cycle with the addition of a final adiabatic compression in which motive power was con sumed to heat the gas to its original incoming temperature and so closed the cycle. He realized the importance of beginning with the temperature of the fire and not the steam in the boiler. These ideas were not taken up in the study of thermodynartiics until after Sadi's death when B.P.E.Clapeyron discovered his book in 1834.
    In 1824 Sadi was recalled to military service as a staff captain, but he resigned in 1828 to devote his time to physics and economics. He continued his work on steam-engines and began to develop a kinetic theory of heat. In 1831 he was investigating the physical properties of gases and vapours, especially the relationship between temperature and pressure. In June 1832 he contracted scarlet fever, which was followed by "brain fever". He made a partial recovery, but that August he fell victim to a cholera epidemic to which he quickly succumbed.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1824, Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu; pub. 1960, trans. R.H.Thurston, New York: Dover Publications; pub. 1978, trans. Robert Fox, Paris (full biographical accounts are provided in the introductions of the translated editions).
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 1971, Vol. III, New York: C.Scribner's Sons. T.I.Williams (ed.), 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, London: A. \& C.
    Black.
    Chambers Concise Dictionary of Scientists, 1989, Cambridge.
    D.S.L.Cardwell, 1971, from Watt to Clausius. The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age, London: Heinemann (discusses Carnot's theories of heat).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi

  • 16 Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 11 June 1910 Saint-André-de-Cubzac, France
    [br]
    French marine explorer who invented the aqualung.
    [br]
    He was the son of a country lawyer who became legal advisor and travelling companion to certain rich Americans. At an early age Cousteau acquired a love of travel, of the sea and of cinematography: he made his first film at the age of 13. After an interrupted education he nevertheless passed the difficult entrance examination to the Ecole Navale in Brest, but his naval career was cut short in 1936 by injuries received in a serious motor accident. For his long recuperation he was drafted to Toulon. There he met Philippe Tailliez, a fellow naval officer, and Frédéric Dumas, a champion spearfisher, with whom he formed a long association and began to develop his underwater swimming and photography. He apparently took little part in the Second World War, but under cover he applied his photographic skills to espionage, for which he was awarded the Légion d'honneur after the war.
    Cousteau sought greater freedom of movement underwater and, with Emile Gagnan, who worked in the laboratory of Air Liquide, he began experimenting to improve portable underwater breathing apparatus. As a result, in 1943 they invented the aqualung. Its simple design and robust construction provided a reliable and low-cost unit and revolutionized scientific and recreational diving. Gagnan shunned publicity, but Cousteau revelled in the new freedom to explore and photograph underwater and exploited the publicity potential to the full.
    The Undersea Research Group was set up by the French Navy in 1944 and, based in Toulon, it provided Cousteau with the Opportunity to develop underwater exploration and filming techniques and equipment. Its first aims were minesweeping and exploration, but in 1948 Cousteau pioneered an extension to marine archaeology. In 1950 he raised the funds to acquire a surplus US-built minesweeper, which he fitted out to further his quest for exploration and adventure and named Calypso. Cousteau also sought and achieved public acclaim with the publication in 1953 of The Silent World, an account of his submarine observations, illustrated by his own brilliant photography. The book was an immediate success and was translated into twenty-two languages. In 1955 Calypso sailed through the Red Sea and the western Indian Ocean, and the outcome was a film bearing the same title as the book: it won an Oscar and the Palme d'Or at the Cannes film festival. This was his favoured medium for the expression of his ideas and observations, and a stream of films on the same theme kept his name before the public.
    Cousteau's fame earned him appointment by Prince Rainier as Director of the Oceanographie Institute in Monaco in 1957, a post he held until 1988. With its museum and research centre, it offered Cousteau a useful base for his worldwide activities.
    In the 1980s Cousteau turned again to technological development. Like others before him, he was concerned to reduce ships' fuel consumption by harnessing wind power. True to form, he raised grants from various sources to fund research and enlisted technical help, namely Lucien Malavard, Professor of Aerodynamics at the Sorbonne. Malavard designed a 44 ft (13.4 m) high non-rotating cylinder, which was fitted onto a catamaran hull, christened Moulin à vent. It was intended that its maiden Atlantic crossing in 1983 should herald a new age in ship propulsion, with large royalties to Cousteau. Unfortunately the vessel was damaged in a storm and limped to the USA under diesel power. A more robust vessel, the Alcyone, was fitted with two "Turbosails" in 1985 and proved successful, with a 40 per cent reduction in fuel consumption. However, oil prices fell, removing the incentive to fit the new device; the lucrative sales did not materialize and Alcyone remained the only vessel with Turbosails, sharing with Calypso Cousteau's voyages of adventure and exploration. In September 1995, Cousteau was among the critics of the decision by the French President Jacques Chirac to resume testing of nuclear explosive devices under the Mururoa atoll in the South Pacific.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Légion d'honneur. Croix de Guerre with Palm. Officier du Mérite Maritime and numerous scientific and artistic awards listed in such directories as Who's Who.
    Bibliography
    Further Reading
    R.Munson, 1991, Cousteau, the Captain and His World, London: Robert Hale (published in the USA 1989).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

  • 17 Lippman, Gabriel

    [br]
    b. 16 August 1845 Hallerick, Luxembourg
    d. 14 July 1921 at sea, in the North Atlantic
    [br]
    French physicist who developed interference colour photography.
    [br]
    Born of French parents, Lippman's work began with a distinguished career in classics, philosophy, mathematics and physics at the Ecole Normale in Luxembourg. After further studies in physics at Heidelberg University, he returned to France and the Sorbonne, where he was in 1886 appointed Director of Physics. He was a leading pioneer in France of research into electricity, optics, heat and other branches of physics.
    In 1886 he conceived the idea of recording the existence of standing waves in light when it is reflected back on itself, by photographing the colours so produced. This required the production of a photographic emulsion that was effectively grainless: the individual silver halide crystals had to be smaller than the shortest wavelength of light to be recorded. Lippman succeeded in this and in 1891 demonstrated his process. A glass plate was coated with a grainless emulsion and held in a special plate-holder, glass towards the lens. The back of the holder was filled with mercury, which provided a perfect reflector when in contact with the emulsion. The standing waves produced during the exposure formed laminae in the emulsion, with the number of laminae being determined by the wavelength of the incoming light at each point on the image. When the processed plate was viewed under the correct lighting conditions, a theoretically exact reproduction of the colours of the original subject could be seen. However, the Lippman process remained a beautiful scientific demonstration only, since the ultra-fine-grain emulsion was very slow, requiring exposure times of over 10,000 times that of conventional negative material. Any method of increasing the speed of the emulsion also increased the grain size and destroyed the conditions required for the process to work.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Royal Photographic Society Progress Medal 1897. Nobel Prize (for his work in interference colour photography) 1908.
    Further Reading
    J.S.Friedman, 1944, History of Colour Photography, Boston.
    Brian Coe, 1978, Colour Photography: The First Hundred Years, London. Gert Koshofer, 1981, Farbfotografie, Vol. I, Munich.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Lippman, Gabriel

  • 18 Lumière, Auguste

    [br]
    b. 19 October 1862 Besançon, France
    d. 10 April 1954 Lyon, France
    [br]
    French scientist and inventor.
    [br]
    Auguste and his brother Louis Lumière (b. 5 October 1864 Besançon, France; d. 6 June 1948 Bandol, France) developed the photographic plate-making business founded by their father, Charles Antoine Lumière, at Lyons, extending production to roll-film manufacture in 1887. In the summer of 1894 their father brought to the factory a piece of Edison kinetoscope film, and said that they should produce films for the French owners of the new moving-picture machine. To do this, of course, a camera was needed; Louis was chiefly responsible for the design, which used an intermittent claw for driving the film, inspired by a sewing-machine mechanism. The machine was patented on 13 February 1895, and it was shown on 22 March 1895 at the Société d'Encouragement pour l'In-dustrie Nationale in Paris, with a projected film showing workers leaving the Lyons factory. Further demonstrations followed at the Sorbonne, and in Lyons during the Congrès des Sociétés de Photographie in June 1895. The Lumières filmed the delegates returning from an excursion, and showed the film to the Congrès the next day. To bring the Cinématographe, as it was called, to the public, the basement of the Grand Café in the Boulevard des Capuchines in Paris was rented, and on Saturday 28 December 1895 the first regular presentations of projected pictures to a paying public took place. The half-hour shows were an immediate success, and in a few months Lumière Cinématographes were seen throughout the world.
    The other principal area of achievement by the Lumière brothers was colour photography. They took up Lippman's method of interference colour photography, developing special grainless emulsions, and early in 1893 demonstrated their results by lighting them with an arc lamp and projecting them on to a screen. In 1895 they patented a method of subtractive colour photography involving printing the colour separations on bichromated gelatine glue sheets, which were then dyed and assembled in register, on paper for prints or bound between glass for transparencies. Their most successful colour process was based upon the colour-mosaic principle. In 1904 they described a process in which microscopic grains of potato starch, dyed red, green and blue, were scattered on a freshly varnished glass plate. When dried the mosaic was coated with varnish and then with a panchromatic emulsion. The plate was exposed with the mosaic towards the lens, and after reversal processing a colour transparency was produced. The process was launched commercially in 1907 under the name Autochrome; it was the first fully practical single-plate colour process to reach the public, remaining on the market until the 1930s, when it was followed by a film version using the same principle.
    Auguste and Louis received the Progress Medal of the Royal Photographic Society in 1909 for their work in colour photography. Auguste was also much involved in biological science and, having founded the Clinique Auguste Lumière, spent many of his later years working in the physiological laboratory.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Guy Borgé, 1980, Prestige de la photographie, Nos. 8, 9 and 10, Paris. Brian Coe, 1978, Colour Photography: The First Hundred Years, London ——1981, The History of Movie Photography, London.
    Jacques Deslandes, 1966, Histoire comparée du cinéma, Vol. I, Paris. Gert Koshofer, 1981, Farbfotografie, Vol. I, Munich.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Lumière, Auguste

  • 19 Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães

    (1918-)
       Historian, academic, political figure. Internationally, Portugal's most celebrated historian of the 20th century. Born into a family with strong republican and antidictatorial tendencies, Godinho chose an academic career following his graduation (1940) in history and philosophy from the Faculty of Letters, University of Lisbon. He taught history at the same institution until 1944, when his academic career was cut short by the Estado Novo's orders. He resumed his academic career in France, where he taught history and received his doctorate in history at the Sorbonne (1959). He returned briefly to Portugal but, during the academic/political crisis of 1962, he was fired from his faculty position at the Instituto Superior de Estudos Ultramarinos in Lisbon.
       In the 1960s and early 1970s, Godinho's scholarly publications on the social and economic history of the Portuguese overseas empire (1400-1700) first made a lasting impact both in Portuguese historiography and world historiography regarding the Age of Discoveries. His notion of a world system or economy, with ample quantitative data on prices, money, and trade in the style and spirit of the French Annales School of History, had an important influence on social scientists outside Portugal, including on American scholar Immanuel Wallerstein and his world system studies. Godinho's work emphasized social and economic history before 1750, and his most notable works included Prix et monnaies au Portugal (1955), A Economia dos Descobrimentos Henriquinos (1962), and, in three volumes, Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial (1963-71).
       As a staunch opponent of the Estado Novo who had been dismissed yet again from 1962 to 1971, Godinho concentrated on his research and publications, as well as continuing activity in oppositionist parties, rallies, and elections. Disillusioned by the false "Spring" of freedom under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano (1968-74), he returned to France to teach. Following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Godinho returned to newly democratic Portugal. During several provisional governments (1974-75), he was appointed minister of education and initiated reforms. The confusing political maelstrom of revolutionary Portugal, however, discouraged his continuation in public office. He returned to university teaching and scholarship, and then helped establish a new institution of higher learning, the Universidade Nova de Lisboa (New University of Lisbon), where he retired, loaded with honors and acclaim, at age 70 in 1988.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães

  • 20 Chrétien, Henri Jacques

    [br]
    b. 1879 Paris, France
    d. 7 February 1956 Washington, USA
    [br]
    French astrophysicist, inventor of the anamorphoser, which became the basis of the Cinemascope motion picture system.
    [br]
    Chrétien studied science, and after obtaining his bachelors degree he started his working life at Meudon Observatory. He married in 1910, the same year as he was appointed Head of Astrophysics at Nice. In 1917 he helped to found the Institut d'Optique in Paris. Chrétien became Professor of astrophysics at the Sorbonne and in 1927, as part of his work on optical systems, demonstrated the use of an anamorphic lens for wide-screen motion pictures. Although the system was demonstrated in Washington as early as 1928 and again at the Paris International Exposition of 1937, it was not until 1952 that Twentieth-Century Fox were able to complete purchase of the patents which became the basis of their Cinemascope system. Cinemascope was one of the most successful technical innovations introduced by film studios in the early 1950s as part of their attempts to combat competition from television. The first Cinemascope epic, The Robe, shown in 1953, was an outstanding commercial success, and a series of similarly spectacular productions followed.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.Kingslake, 1989, A History of the Photographic Lens, Boston (biographical information and technical details of the anamorphic lens).
    JW

    Biographical history of technology > Chrétien, Henri Jacques

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