the+first+president+of+the+usa

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace, Electricity, Land transport, Ports and shipping

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Sperry was born into a farming community in Cortland County. He received a rudimentary education at the local school, but an interest in mechanical devices was aroused by the agricultural machinery he saw around him. His attendance at the Normal School in Cortland provided a useful theoretical background to his practical knowledge. He emerged in 1880 with an urge to pursue invention in electrical engineering, then a new and growing branch of technology. Within two years he was able to patent and demonstrate his arc lighting system, complete with its own generator, incorporating new methods of regulating its output. The Sperry Electric Light, Motor and Car Brake Company was set up to make and market the system, but it was difficult to keep pace with electric-lighting developments such as the incandescent lamp and alternating current, and the company ceased in 1887 and was replaced by the Sperry Electric Company, which itself was taken over by the General Electric Company.

In the 1890s Sperry made useful inventions in electric mining machinery and then in electric street-or tramcars, with his patent electric brake and control system. The patents for the brake were important enough to be bought by General Electric. From 1894 to 1900 he was manufacturing electric motor cars of his own design, and in 1900 he set up a laboratory in Washington, where he pursued various electrochemical processes.

In 1896 he began to work on the practical application of the principle of the gyroscope, where Sperry achieved his most notable inventions, the first of which was the gyrostabilizer for ships. The relatively narrow-hulled steamship rolled badly in heavy seas and in 1904 Ernst Otto Schuck, a German naval engineer, and Louis Brennan in England began experiments to correct this; their work stimulated Sperry to develop his own device. In 1908 he patented the active gyrostabilizer, which acted to correct a ship's roll as soon as it started. Three years later the US Navy agreed to try it on a destroyer, the USS Worden. The successful trials of the following year led to widespread adoption. Meanwhile, in 1910, Sperry set up the Sperry Gyroscope Company to extend the application to commercial shipping.

At the same time, Sperry was working to apply the gyroscope principle to the ship's compass. The magnetic compass had worked well in wooden ships, but iron hulls and electrical machinery confused it. The great powers' race to build up their navies instigated an urgent search for a solution. In Germany, Anschütz-Kämpfe (1872–1931) in 1903 tested a form of gyrocompass and was encouraged by the authorities to demonstrate the device on the German flagship, the Deutschland. Its success led Sperry to develop his own version: fortunately for him, the US Navy preferred a home-grown product to a German one and gave Sperry all the backing he needed. A successful trial on a destroyer led to widespread acceptance in the US Navy, and Sperry was soon receiving orders from the British Admiralty and the Russian Navy.

In the rapidly developing field of aeronautics, automatic stabilization was becoming an urgent need. In 1912 Sperry began work on a gyrostabilizer for aircraft. Two years later he was able to stage a spectacular demonstration of such a device at an air show near Paris.

Sperry continued research, development and promotion in military and aviation technology almost to the last. In 1926 he sold the Sperry Gyroscope Company to enable him to devote more time to invention.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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Charles H.Townes entered Furman University, Greenville, at the early age of 16 and in 1935 obtained a BA in modern languages and a BS in physics. After a year of postgraduate study at Duke University, he received a master's degree in physics in 1936. He then went on to the California Institute of Technology, where he obtained a PhD in 1939. From 1939 to 1947 he worked at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, mainly on airborne radar, although he also did some work on radio astronomy. In 1948 he joined Columbia University as Associate Professor of Physics and in 1950 was appointed a full professor. He was Director of the University's Radiation Laboratory from 1950 to 1952, and from 1952 to 1955 he was Chairman of the Physics Department.

To meet the need for an oscillator generating very short wavelength electromagnetic radiation, Townes in 1951 realized that use could be made of the different natural energy levels of atoms and molecules. The practical application of this idea was achieved in his laboratory in 1953 using ammonia gas to make the device known as a maser (an acronym of microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). The maser was developed in the next few years and in 1958, in a joint paper with his brother-in-law Arthur L. Schawlow, Townes suggested the possibility of a further development into optical frequencies or an optical maser, later known as a laser (an acronym of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). Two years later the first such device was made by Theodore H. Maiman.

In 1959 Townes was given leave from Columbia University to serve as Vice-President and Director of Research at the Institute for Defense Analyses until 1961. He was then appointed Provost and Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1967 he became University Professor of Physics at the University of California, where he has extended his research interests in the field of microwave and infra-red astronomy. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the American Astronomical Society.

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(comm., ditto) idem; come sopra.

(pass. did, p. p. done; 3^a pers. indic. does, congiunt. USA o arc. e poet. do)

A v. t.

1 fare: to do a stupid [nice, etc.] thing, fare una cosa stupida [bella, ecc.]; He's done something terrible, ha fatto una cosa terribile; I don't know what I've done wrong, non so cosa io abbia fatto di sbagliato; What have you done?, cos'hai fatto?; to do one's duty [the right thing], fare il proprio dovere [la cosa giusta]; What are you doing?, che cosa stai facendo?; Can I do anything ( for you)?, posso fare qualcosa (per te)?; They did nothing to help me, non hanno fatto niente per aiutarmi; to do a sum, fare una somma; We did the journey in two days, abbiamo fatto il viaggio in due giorni; I've done three copies of the letter, ho fatto tre copie della lettera; Can you do a list?, puoi fare una lista?; He did a series of watercolours of the Thames, ha fatto una serie di acquerelli raffiguranti il Tamigi; She's doing a documentary about old people, sta facendo un documentario sugli anziani

2 fare, praticare ( un'attività): How long have you been doing yoga?, da quant'è che fai yoga?; What do you usually do?, che cosa fai di solito?; What do you do ( for a living)?, che lavoro fai?; I do pottery on Wednesdays, il mercoledì faccio un corso di ceramica; You need to do at least half an hour of exercise three times a week, devi fare almeno mezzora di esercizio tre volte la settimana; to do the ironing [washing, cooking, shopping, etc.], stirare, lavare i panni, cucinare, fare la spesa, ecc.; (fam.) to do lunch [a film, dinner, etc.], pranzare, guardare un film, cenare, ecc.

3 vendere, avere: Do you do bus tickets, too?, avete (o vendete) anche i biglietti per l'autobus?; They don't do food, non servono da mangiare (o non vendono alimentari); They do stationery as well as books, vendono anche articoli di cancelleria oltre che libri; We do a huge range of household items, abbiamo un'enorme gamma di articoli per la casa

4 fare, percorrere: We did 200 km on Saturday, abbiamo fatto 200 km sabato; They were doing 150 on the motorway, andavano ai 150 all'ora in autostrada

5 fare, studiare: I did French for three years, ho fatto tre anni di francese; What is she doing at university?, cosa fa all'università?; We haven't done the First World War yet, non abbiamo ancora fatto la prima guerra mondiale

6 (fam.) fare, passare ( un periodo): He's done four years in jail, ha fatto quattro anni di carcere; She's just done a year in the Paris office, ha appena passato un anno nella sede di Parigi; (fam.) to do time, scontare una pena

7 fare, preparare ( del cibo): Can you do the potatoes?, puoi fare le patate?; I'll do a salad while you lay the table, faccio un'insalata mentre apparecchi la tavola; I'm doing fish, I hope that's ok, faccio del pesce, spero che vada bene

8 (fam.) fare, pulire (o lavare, sistemare, ecc.): I've done the living room, now I'm going to do the hall, ho fatto il soggiorno, ora faccio l'ingresso; We did the garden at the weekend, abbiamo sistemato il giardino nel fine settimana; Someone comes to do the windows, viene qualcuno a lavare le finestre; to do the beds, fare i letti; to do the dishes, lavare i piatti; to do one's teeth, lavarsi i denti; to do one's hair [nails, makeup], farsi i capelli [le unghie, il trucco]; Who does your hair?, da che parrucchiere vai?

9 rifare, pitturare (o tappezzare, ecc.): We haven't done the bedrooms yet, non abbiamo ancora rifatto le camere da letto; They've done the kitchen bright yellow, hanno pitturato la cucina di un giallo acceso NOTA D'USO: - non so come fare-

10 (fam.) visitare: They did five cities in three days, hanno visitato cinque città in tre giorni; Have you done the Tower of London yet?, hai già visitato la torre di Londra?

11 (fam.) imbrogliare; fregare: You've been done, ti hanno fregato

12 (fam.) andare bene a: A sandwich will do me fine, un panino mi va benissimo; I haven't got a large pack, will this one do you?, non ho confezioni grandi, questa Le va bene?

13 (fam.) trattare, accogliere ( un ospite): They did us very well, ci hanno accolti benissimo

14 (fam.) conciare per le feste; sistemare; ( anche) uccidere; far fuori (fam.): I'll do you!, ti sistemo io!

15 fare, imitare ( un personaggio famoso, ecc.): He does the President brilliantly, è bravissimo a imitare il presidente; Can you do a Liverpool accent?, sai fare l'accento di Liverpool?

16 (fam.) mettere dentro, arrestare; ( anche) fare la multa a: He was done for drug dealing, lo hanno messo dentro per spaccio; They did her for speeding ( o She was done for speeding), le hanno fatto la multa per eccesso di velocità, si è beccata una multa per eccesso di velocità

17 ( slang) svaligiare; rapinare: They did three houses on the same street, hanno svaligiato tre case nella stessa via

B v. i.

1 fare; agire: You did well to refuse, hai fatto bene a rifiutare; I'll do as I like, faccio come mi pare; Do as you're told, fai quello che ti si dice

2 (fam.) fare, evolvere: What do you think the weather's going to do tomorrow?, cosa pensi che farà il tempo domani?; No one knows what the economy's going to do over the next six months, nessuno sa come evolverà l'economia nei prossimi sei mesi

3 – to be doing well [fine, ok, etc.], stare bene [benissimo, abbastanza bene] ( di salute): Mother and child are doing very well, la madre e il bambino stanno benissimo; He's not doing too well, non sta molto bene

4 ( di persona, attività) andare: You haven't done badly, non sei andato male; I didn't do well in my exams, non sono andato bene agli esami; How do you think England will do?, come pensi che andrà l'Inghilterra?; The business is doing very well, l'azienda va a gonfie vele; We're doing all right, ce la caviamo piuttosto bene; DIALOGO → - Petrol- How are we doing for petrol?, come siamo messi a carburante?

5 bastare: Will fifty dollars do?, basteranno cinquanta dollari?; DIALOGO → - Local shop 1- «Anything else?» DIALOGO → - Local shop 1- «No, that'll do, thanks», «Nient'altro?» «No, va bene così, grazie»; That will do!, adesso basta!

6 andare bene lo stesso; essere accettabile: This dress isn't exactly what I wanted, but I suppose it will do, questo vestito non è proprio quello che volevo, ma presumo che andrà bene lo stesso; The house is not ideal, but it will do for now, la casa non è ideale, ma per il momento bisognerà accontentarsi

7 (sempre neg.) andare bene, essere opportuno: It doesn't do to work too hard, lavorare troppo non va bene; I've told you before, this kind of behaviour just won't do, te l'ho già detto: questo modo di comportarsi proprio non va bene; It wouldn't do to ask him for money, non starebbe bene chiedergli dei soldi; DIALOGO → - Organizing a meeting- Sorry, I can't do Thursday afternoon, mi dispiace, giovedì pomeriggio non posso

C verbo ausiliare NOTA D'USO: - chi-

1 (nelle frasi interr., neg. e interr. neg.; è idiom.): Do you understand?, capisci?; I don't understand, non capisco; Does he know?, lo sa?; He does not ( o doesn't) know, non lo sa; Did you go?, ci sei andato?; They did not ( o didn't) ask me, non mi hanno invitato

2 fare (determinato dal verbo precedente, di cui evita la ripetizione): If you want to tell him, do it now, se vuoi dirglielo, fallo ora; (idiom.) «Who took my hat?» «I did», «chi ha preso il mio cappello?» «sono stato io»; «Did you see him?» «I did», «l'hai visto?» «sì»

3 (nell'imper. neg.; è idiom.): Do not ( o don't) worry!, non preoccuparti!; Don't let them interfere!, non lasciare che si intromettano!

4 (nelle «tag questions») (è) vero?, no?: You don't like him, do you?, ti è antipatico, è vero?; You told him, didn't you?, glielo hai detto, no?; He didn't pay the bill, did he?, non l'ha (mica) pagato il conto, vero?; She doesn't know, does she?, lei non lo sa, no?

5 (nella costruzione inversa; è idiom.): «I don't like it» «Neither do I», «Non mi piace» «Neanche a me»; «I didn't go» «Nor did I», «Non ci sono andato» «Nemmeno io»; «I like opera» «So do I», «Mi piace la lirica» «A me pure»; (form.) Little did he realize that…, quasi non si rendeva conto che…

6 ( uso enfat.; è idiom.): Do sit down!, si accomodi, La prego!; Do help yourself!, serviti pure!; But I did see her!, sì che l'ho vista!; DIALOGO → - Clothes 1- I'm here if you do need anything, per qualsiasi cosa, io sono qui; I do love you, ti amo davvero; ( formula nel rito del matrimonio) «till death us do part», «finché morte non ci separi»

● to do as (o for), (form.) to do duty as, fare da, servire da: The tents will do for shelter until the weather gets worse, le tende serviranno da riparo fino a che il tempo non peggiora □ to do sb. a bad turn, fare uno sgarbo (o una scortesia, un brutto tiro) a q. □ to do one's best (o utmost), fare del proprio meglio: I'll do my best to help him, farò del mio meglio per aiutarlo □ (fam. ingl.) to do one's bit, fare la propria parte (o il proprio dovere) □ to do the books (o the accounts), fare (o tenere) la contabilità □ to do business, fare affari: It's been a pleasure to do business with you, è stato un piacere fare affari con Lei □ to do well by sb., trattar bene q.: The company does well by its employees, l'azienda tratta bene i suoi dipendenti; to be [to feel] hard done by, essere [sentirsi] trattato male □ to do damage to st., danneggiare qc.: The storm did a lot of damage to buildings, il nubifragio ha danneggiato molto gli edifici □ (fam.) to do one's damnedest, darci sotto; mettercela tutta □ ( slang) to do drugs, drogarsi; farsi □ to do evil, fare del male; commettere azioni malvagie □ to do sb. a favour (o a kindness, a good turn), fare un favore (o un piacere) a q. □ to do (sb.) good, far bene (a q.): A rest will do you a lot of good, un po' di riposo ti farà molto bene □ to do (sb. o st.) harm, causare danni (a q. o qc.): The first rule for a doctor is to do no harm, la prima regola per un medico è non causare danni; The illness didn't do him any lasting harm, la malattia non gli ha causato danni permanenti □ to do sb. justice, rendere giustizia a q. (fig.): This photo doesn't do you justice, questa foto non ti rende giustizia □ (fam.) to do nice [generous, ecc.], comportarsi bene [con generosità, ecc.]: She doesn't do generous, non si comporta con generosità □ to do nicely, andare bene: If you can't be bothered with heavy reading, this book will do nicely, se non hai voglia di letture pesanti, questo libro andrà proprio bene □ to do nothing [a lot] for, non giovare [giovare molto] a; ( di abito, pettinatura, ecc.) non donare [donare molto] a: The scandal will do nothing for his reputation, lo scandalo non gioverà alla sua reputazione; This dress does nothing for her, questo vestito non le dona; Getting a job will do a lot for her confidence, trovare lavoro gioverà molto alla sua autostima □ to do the sights, visitare ( una città, ecc.) da turista □ (fam.) to do one's ( own) thing, fare quel che si vuole; fare il proprio comodo □ to do well for oneself, avere successo, fare fortuna: Grandfather did well for himself in America, il nonno ha fatto fortuna in America □ to do wonders for, fare miracoli per: A change of scene can do wonders for your mood, un cambiamento d'ambiente può fare miracoli per l'umore □ to do one's worst, fare quanto più male è possibile: Let him do his worst; I'm not afraid of him, faccia pure (il diavolo a quattro); non mi fa paura □ to do wrong, sbagliare: He did wrong, but he's paid for it, ha sbagliato, ma ha pagato per questo □ (fig.) do or die –: It's do or die, o la va o la spacca; a do-or-die attempt, un tentativo decisivo □ to have nothing to do with st. [sb.], non avere niente a che vedere con qc. [q.]: I'm sure Susan had nothing whatever to do with it, sono sicuro che Susan non ha proprio niente a che vedere con questo □ (fam.) nothing doing, niente da fare: We tried to change the tickets, but it was nothing doing, abbiamo provato a cambiare i biglietti, ma non c'è stato niente da fare □ (fam.) What's doing?, che si fa di bello?: What's doing tonight?, che si fa di bello stasera? □ (fam.) do what?, cosa?: «Fancy a drink?» «Do what?» «I said, do you want a drink?», «qualcosa da bere?» «cosa?» «ho detto, vuoi bere qualcosa?» □ That does it!, ecco fatto!; ( anche) adesso basta! □ That's done it!, bel guaio! □ That should do it!, ecco fatto! □ DIALOGO → - Greetings and other useful phrases- How do you do?, piacere! ( nelle presentazioni formali); ( anche) come sta? ( quando si conosce già la persona, ma non c'è intimità: cfr. How are you?) □ (fam.) DIALOGO → - Hearing from an old friend- «How are you doing?» DIALOGO → - Greetings and other useful phrases- «Not bad, and you?», «Come va?» «Non male, e tu?» □ It isn't done, non sta bene: It isn't done to talk with your mouth full, non sta bene parlare a bocca piena □ Now you've done it!, l'hai fatta bella (o grossa)! □ You [He, They, etc.] would do well to do st., faresti [farebbe, farebbero, ecc.] bene a fare qc.: They would do well to remember who pays their salaries, farebbero bene a ricordarsi chi gli paga lo stipendio □ What will you do for food [money]?, come farete per il mangiare [i soldi]? □ (fam.) What are you doing out at this time of night?, che ci fai fuori a quest'ora di notte? □ (fam.) What's my jacket doing on the floor?, che ci fa la mia giacca per terra?

SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electricity, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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After education in Sweden at the High School and University of Lund and the Royal Institution of Technology in Stockholm, Alexanderson took a postgraduate course at the Berlin-Charlottenburg Engineering College. In 1901 he began work for the Swedish C \& C Electric Company, joining the General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York, the following year. There, in 1906, together with Fessenden, he developed a series of high-power, high-frequency alternators, which had a dramatic effect on radio communications and resulted in the first real radio broadcast. His early interest in television led to working demonstrations in his own home in 1925 and at the General Electric laboratories in 1927, and to the first public demonstration of large-screen (7 ft (2.13 m) diagonal) projection TV in 1930. Another invention of significance was the "amplidyne", a sensitive manufacturing-control system subsequently used during the Second World War for controlling anti-aircraft guns. He also contributed to developments in electric propulsion and radio aerials.

He retired from General Electric in 1948, but continued television research as a consultant for the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), filing his 321st patent in 1955.

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SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors

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Born in upstate New York, where his father was a small manufacturer, Edward Clark attended college at Williams and graduated in 1831. He became a lawyer in New York City and from then on lived either in the city or on his rural estate near Cooperstown in upstate New York. After a series of share manipulations, Clark acquired a one-third interest in Isaac M. Singer's company. They soon bought out one of Singer's earlier partners, G.B.Zeiber, and in 1851, under the name of I.M.Singer \& Co., they set up a permanent sewing machine business with headquarters in New York.

The success of their firm initially rested on marketing. Clark introduced door-to-door sales-people and hire-purchase for their sewing machines in 1856 ($50 cash down, or $100 with a cash payment of $5 and $3 a month thereafter). He also trained women to demonstrate to potential customers the capabilities of the Singer sewing machine. At first their sewing machines continued to be made in the traditional way, with the parts fitted together by skilled workers through hand filing and shaping so that the parts would fit only onto one machine. This resembled European practice rather than the American system of manufacture that had been pioneered in the armouries in that country. In 1856 Singer brought out their first machine intended exclusively for home use, and at the same time manufacturing capacity was improved. Through increased sales, a new factory was built in 1858–9 on Mott Street, New York, but it soon became inadequate to meet demand.

In 1863 the Singer company was incorporated as the Singer Manufacturing Co. and began to modernize its production methods with special jigs and fixtures to help ensure uniformity. More and more specialized machinery was built for making the parts. By 1880 the factory, then at Elizabethport, New Jersey, was jammed with automatic and semi-automatic machine tools. In 1882 the factory was producing sewing machines with fully interchangeable parts that did not require hand fitting in assembly. Production rose from 810 machines in 1853 to half a million in 1880. A new family model was introduced in 1881. Clark had succeeded Singer, who died in 1875, as President of the company, but he retired in 1882 after he had seen through the change to mass production.

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SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering

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The son of an immigrant merchant, he was educated at the local school, leaving at the age of 13 to take on various jobs, eventually becoming a purser on a Mississippi steamboat. He was struck by the number of wrecks lying in the river; he devised a diving bell and, at the age of 22, set up in business as a salvage engineer. So successful was he at this venture that he was able to retire in three years' time and set up the first glassworks west of the Ohio River. This, however, was a failure and in 1848 he returned to the business of salvage on the Ohio River. He was so successful that he was able to retire permanently in 1857. From the start of the American Civil War in 1861 he recommended to President Lincoln that he should obtain a fleet of armour-plated, steam-powered gunboats to operate on the western rivers. He built seven of these himself, later building or converting a further eighteen. After the end of the war he obtained the contract to design and build a bridge over the Mississippi at St Louis. In this he made use of his considerable knowledge of the river-bed currents. He built a bridge with a 500 ft (150 m) centre span and a clearance of 50 ft (15 m) that was completed in 1874. The three spans are, respectively, 502 ft, 520 ft and 502 ft (153 m, 158 m and 153 m), each being spanned by an arch. The Mississippi river is subject to great changes, both seasonal and irregular, with a range of over 41 ft (12.5 m) between low and high water and a velocity varying from 4 ft (1.2 m) to 12 1/2 ft (3.8 m) per second. The Eads Bridge was completed in 1874 and in the following year Eads was commissioned to open one of the mouths of the Mississippi, for which he constructed a number of jetty traps. He was involved later in attempts to construct a ship railway across the isthmus of Panama. He had been suffering from indifferent health for some years, and this effort was too much for him. He died on 8 March 1887. He was the first American to be awarded the Royal Society of Arts' Albert Medal.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology

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Noyce was the son of a Congregational minister whose family, after a number of moves, finally settled in Grinnell, some 50 miles (80 km) east of Des Moines, Iowa. Encouraged to follow his interest in science, in his teens he worked as a baby-sitter and mower of lawns to earn money for his hobby. One of his clients was Professor of Physics at Grinnell College, where Noyce enrolled to study mathematics and physics and eventually gained a top-grade BA. It was while there that he learned of the invention of the transistor by the team at Bell Laboratories, which included John Bardeen, a former fellow student of his professor. After taking a PhD in physical electronics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953, he joined the Philco Corporation in Philadelphia to work on the development of transistors. Then in January 1956 he accepted an invitation from William Shockley, another of the Bell transistor team, to join the newly formed Shockley Transistor Company, the first electronic firm to set up shop in Palo Alto, California, in what later became known as "Silicon Valley".

From the start things at the company did not go well and eventually Noyce and Gordon Moore and six colleagues decided to offer themselves as a complete development team; with the aid of the Fairchild Camera and Instrument Company, the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation was born. It was there that in 1958, contemporaneously with Jack K. Wilby at Texas Instruments, Noyce had the idea for monolithic integration of transistor circuits. Eventually, after extended patent litigation involving study of laboratory notebooks and careful examination of the original claims, priority was assigned to Noyce. The invention was most timely. The Apollo Moon-landing programme announced by President Kennedy in May 1961 called for lightweight sophisticated navigation and control computer systems, which could only be met by the rapid development of the new technology, and Fairchild was well placed to deliver the micrologic chips required by NASA.

In 1968 the founders sold Fairchild Semicon-ductors to the parent company. Noyce and Moore promptly found new backers and set up the Intel Corporation, primarily to make high-density memory chips. The first product was a 1,024-bit random access memory (1 K RAM) and by 1973 sales had reached $60 million. However, Noyce and Moore had already realized that it was possible to make a complete microcomputer by putting all the logic needed to go with the memory chip(s) on a single integrated circuit (1C) chip in the form of a general purpose central processing unit (CPU). By 1971 they had produced the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which sold for US$200, and within a year the 8008 followed. The personal computer (PC) revolution had begun! Noyce eventually left Intel, but he remained active in microchip technology and subsequently founded Sematech Inc.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity

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Although he developed dynamos for electroplating and lighting, Weston's major contribution to technology was his invention of a moving-coil voltmeter and the standard cell which bears his name. After some years as a medical student, during which he gained a knowledge of chemistry, he abandoned his studies. Emigrating to New York in 1870, he was employed by a manufacturer of photographic chemicals. There followed a period with an electroplating company during which he built his first dynamo. In 1877 some business associates financed a company to build these machines and, later, arc-lighting equipment. By 1882 the Weston Company had been absorbed into the United States Electric Lighting Company, which had a counterpart in Britain, the Maxim Weston Company. By the time Weston resigned from the company, in 1886, he had been granted 186 patents. He then began the work in which he made his greatest contribution, the science of electrical measurement.

The Weston meter, the first successful portable measuring instrument with a pivoted coil, was made in 1886. By careful arrangement of the magnet, coil and control springs, he achieved a design with a well-damped movement, which retained its calibration. These instruments were produced commercially on a large scale and the moving-coil principle was soon adopted by many manufacturers. In 1892 he invented manganin, an alloy with a small negative temperature coefficient, for use as resistances in his voltmeters.

The Weston standard cell was invented in 1892. Using his chemical knowledge he produced a cell, based on mercury and cadmium, which replaced the Clark cell as a voltage reference source. The Weston cell became the recognized standard at the International Conference on Electrical Units and Standards held in London in 1908.

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A v. i.

1 riuscire; avere successo; prosperare: I didn't succeed in convincing him, non riuscii a persuaderlo; The Gunpowder Plot of Nov. 5, 1605 didn't succeed, la Congiura delle polveri del 5 novembre 1605 si concluse con un fallimento; He succeeded as a businessman ( o in business), ha avuto successo negli affari

2 succedere; subentrare: His eldest son succeeded him to the throne, il figlio maggiore gli succedette sul trono; to succeed to the chairmanship, subentrare alla presidenza; (in USA) The vice-president succeeds in case of the president's death, in caso di morte del presidente, subentra il vicepresidente

B v. t.

succedere a; subentrare a: Queen Elizabeth I succeeded Mary the Catholic, la regina Elisabetta I succedette a Maria la Cattolica

● (prov.) If at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again, se non riesci al primo colpo, continua a tentare □ to succeed in life, affermarsi nella vita □ to succeed to a title, ereditare un titolo.

A v. i.

1 riuscire; avere successo; prosperare: I didn't succeed in convincing him, non riuscii a persuaderlo; The Gunpowder Plot of Nov. 5, 1605 didn't succeed, la Congiura delle polveri del 5 novembre 1605 si concluse con un fallimento; He succeeded as a businessman ( o in business), ha avuto successo negli affari

2 succedere; subentrare: His eldest son succeeded him to the throne, il figlio maggiore gli succedette sul trono; to succeed to the chairmanship, subentrare alla presidenza; (in USA) The vice-president succeeds in case of the president's death, in caso di morte del presidente, subentra il vicepresidente

B v. t.

succedere a; subentrare a: Queen Elizabeth I succeeded Mary the Catholic, la regina Elisabetta I succedette a Maria la Cattolica

● (prov.) If at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again, se non riesci al primo colpo, continua a tentare □ to succeed in life, affermarsi nella vita □ to succeed to a title, ereditare un titolo.

1) Präsidentschaft, die

2) (of society, legislative body) Vorsitz, der

3) (Univ., esp. Amer.) Präsidentschaft, die; Rektorat, das

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1) (the rank or office of a president: His ambition is the presidency.) die Präsidentschaft

2) (the period of time for which somebody is president: during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower.) Eisenhower.die Amtszeit eines Präsidenten/einer Präsidentin

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1. (office) Präsidentschaft f

to assume the \presidency das Amt des Präsidenten/der Präsidentin antreten

to stand for the \presidency für das Amt des Präsidenten/der Präsidentin kandidieren

2. (tenure) Präsidentschaft f

during his/her \presidency während seiner/ihrer Amtszeit als Präsident/Präsidentin; (of company) Aufsichtsratsvorsitz m

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presidency [ˈprezıdənsı] s

1. Präsidium n, Vorsitz m, (Ober)Aufsicht f

2. oft Presidency Präsidentschaft f, Präsidentenamt n (besonders in USA):

his election to presidency seine Wahl zum Präsidenten;

be elected to presidency zum Präsidenten gewählt werden;

candidate for presidency Präsidentschaftskandidat(in)

3. Amtszeit f oder -bereich m (eines Präsidenten)

4. REL

a) lokale Mormonenbehörde

b) First Presidency (die aus dem Propheten und zwei Beiräten bestehende) oberste Mormonenbehörde

5. oft Presidency Br HIST Präsidentschaft f (eine der ehemaligen brit. - indischen Provinzen Bengalen, Bombay und Madras)

pres. abk

1. present

2. presidency

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1) Präsidentschaft, die

2) (of society, legislative body) Vorsitz, der

3) (Univ., esp. Amer.) Präsidentschaft, die; Rektorat, das

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Präsidentschaft f.

Präsidialperiode f.

Vorsitz -e m.

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Photography, film and optics

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The son of an electrical engineer, Theodore H. Maiman graduated with the degree of BS in engineering physics from the University of Colorado in 1949. He then went on to do postgraduate work at Stanford University, where he gained an MS in electrical engineering in 1951 and a PhD in physics in 1955 for work on spectroscopy using microwave-optical techniques. He then joined the Hughes Research Laboratories, where he worked on the stimulated emission of microwave energy. In this field Charles H. Townes had developed the maser (an acronym of microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) and in a paper in 1958 with Arthur L. Schawlow he had suggested the possibility of a further development into optical frequencies, or, of an optical maser, later known as a laser (an acronym of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). Maiman was the first to achieve this when in May 1960 he operated a ruby laser and coherent light was produced for the first time. In 1962 he founded his own company, Korad Corporation, for research, development and manufacture of high-power lasers. He founded Maiman Associates in 1968, acting as consultant on lasers and optics. He was a co-founder of the Laser Video Corporation in 1972, and in 1976 he became Vice-President for advanced technology at TRW Electronics.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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Colpitts obtained Bachelor's degrees at Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, and Harvard in 1894 and 1896, respectively, followed by a Master's degree at Harvard in 1897. After two years as assistant to the professor of physics there, he joined the American Bell Telephone Company. When the Bell Company was reorganized in 1907, he moved to the Western Electric branch of the company in New York as Head of the Physical Laboratories. In 1911 he became a director of the Research Laboratories, and in 1917 he became Assistant Chief Engineer of the company. During this time he invented both the push-pull amplifier and the Colpitts oscillator, both major developments in communications. In 1917, during the First World War, he spent some time in France helping to set up the US Signal Corps Research Laboratories. Afterwards he continued to do much, both technically and as a manager, to place telephone communications on a firm scientific basis, retiring as Vice-President of the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1937. With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1941 he was recalled from retirement and appointed Director of the Engineering Foundation to work on submarine warfare techniques, particularly echo-ranging.

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See also: Hartley, Ralph V.L.

1) amm. art. (session) seduta f.

2) (period in which food is served) servizio m. (del pasto)

3) (incubation period) cova f.

1) (seated)

2) agr.

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noun (a period of continuous action, meeting etc: I read the whole book at one sitting; The committee were prepared for a lengthy sitting.) seduta, tornata

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A n.

1 seduta; adunanza; tornata ( di lavori); (leg.) udienza: an all-night sitting of the House of Commons, una seduta della Camera dei Comuni che è durata tutta la notte; sitting in camera, udienza a porte chiuse

2 ( arte) posa; seduta: He made my portrait in ten sittings, mi fece il ritratto in dieci sedute

3 cova ( di uccelli)

4 ( al ristorante) turno ( per i pasti)

5 posto riservato (a teatr., ecc.)

6 banco riservato o privato ( in chiesa)

B a.

1 seduto; che occupa ( un posto, ecc.)

2 (che è) in seduta

3 (polit.) in carica: the sitting MP, il deputato in carica; Clinton was the first sitting US President to visit Bulgaria, Clinton è stato il primo Presidente in carica degli Stati Uniti a visitare la Bulgaria

4 ( di un uccello) che cova

● sitting accommodation, (disponibilità di) posti a sedere □ (stor. USA) Sitting Bull, Toro Seduto ( capo indiano) □ (fig. fam.) sitting duck, facile bersaglio, facile preda □ sitting hen, chioccia; gallina che cova □ sitting in, babysitteraggio; sorveglianza dei bambini in assenza dei genitori (o di una casa, un cane, ecc., in assenza del padrone) □ sitting room (stanza di) soggiorno; salotto (fam.) □ (fam.) sitting target = sitting duck ► sopra □ (leg.) the sitting tenant, l'attuale affittuario (o inquilino); l'occupante ( di un locale) con diritto di non essere sfrattato □ to give a sitting to a painter, posare per un pittore □ to read a novel at (o in) one sitting, leggere un romanzo tutto di un fiato.

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1) amm. art. (session) seduta f.

2) (period in which food is served) servizio m. (del pasto)

3) (incubation period) cova f.

1) (seated)

2) agr.