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1 new product development
Mktgthe processes involved in getting a new product or service to market. The traditional product development cycle, the stage-gate model, embraces the conception, generation, analysis, development, testing, marketing, and commercialization of new products or services. Alternative models of new product development fall into two broad categories: accelerating time to market models and integrated implementation models. These strive to achieve both flexibility and acceleration of development. All activities such as design, production planning, and test marketing are performed in parallel rather than going through a sequential linear progression.Abbr. NPD -
2 последовательное развитие
1) General subject: gradual development, progressive advance, consistent development2) Economy: orderly development3) Advertising: sequential developmentУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > последовательное развитие
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3 кульминация
кульминация
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[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
climax
A botanical term referring to the terminal community said to be achieved when a sere (a sequential development of a plant community or group of plant communities on the same site over a period of time) achieves dynamic equilibrium with its environment and in particular with its prevailing climate. Each of the world's major vegetation climaxes is equivalent to a biome. Many botanists believe that climate is the master factor in a plant environment and that even if several types of plant succession occur in an area they will all tend to converge towards a climax form of vegetation. (Source: WHIT)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
EN
DE
FR
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > кульминация
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4 Goldmark, Peter Carl
[br]b. 2 December 1906 Budapest, Hungaryd. 7 December 1977 Westchester Co., New York, USA[br]Austro-Hungarian engineer who developed the first commercial colour television system and the long-playing record.[br]After education in Hungary and a period as an assistant at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin, Goldmark moved to England, where he joined Pye of Cambridge and worked on an experimental thirty-line television system using a cathode ray tube (CRT) for the display. In 1936 he moved to the USA to work at Columbia Broadcasting Laboratories. There, with monochrome television based on the CRT virtually a practical proposition, he devoted his efforts to finding a way of producing colour TV images: in 1940 he gave his first demonstration of a working system. There then followed a series of experimental field-sequential colour TV systems based on segmented red, green and blue colour wheels and drums, where the problem was to find an acceptable compromise between bandwidth, resolution, colour flicker and colour-image breakup. Eventually he arrived at a system using a colour wheel in combination with a CRT containing a panchromatic phosphor screen, with a scanned raster of 405 lines and a primary colour rate of 144 fields per second. Despite the fact that the receivers were bulky, gave relatively poor, dim pictures and used standards totally incompatible with the existing 525-line, sixty fields per second interlaced monochrome (black and white) system, in 1950 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), anxious to encourage postwar revival of the industry, authorized the system for public broadcasting. Within eighteen months, however, bowing to pressure from the remainder of the industry, which had formed its own National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) to develop a much more satisfactory, fully compatible system based on the RCA three-gun shadowmask CRT, the FCC withdrew its approval.While all this was going on, Goldmark had also been working on ideas for overcoming the poor reproduction, noise quality, short playing-time (about four minutes) and limited robustness and life of the long-established 78 rpm 12 in. (30 cm) diameter shellac gramophone record. The recent availability of a new, more robust, plastic material, vinyl, which had a lower surface noise, enabled him in 1948 to reduce the groove width some three times to 0.003 in. (0.0762 mm), use a more lightly loaded synthetic sapphire stylus and crystal transducer with improved performance, and reduce the turntable speed to 33 1/3 rpm, to give thirty minutes of high-quality music per side. This successful development soon led to the availability of stereophonic recordings, based on the ideas of Alan Blumlein at EMI in the 1930s.In 1950 Goldmark became a vice-president of CBS, but he still found time to develop a scan conversion system for relaying television pictures to Earth from the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft. He also almost brought to the market a domestic electronic video recorder (EVR) system based on the thermal distortion of plastic film by separate luminance and coded colour signals, but this was overtaken by the video cassette recorder (VCR) system, which uses magnetic tape.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Morris N.Liebmann Award 1945. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Vladimir K. Zworykin Award 1961.Bibliography1951, with J.W.Christensen and J.J.Reeves, "Colour television. USA Standard", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 39: 1,288 (describes the development and standards for the short-lived field-sequential colour TV standard).1949, with R.Snepvangers and W.S.Bachman, "The Columbia long-playing microgroove recording system", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 37:923 (outlines the invention of the long-playing record).Further ReadingE.W.Herold, 1976, "A history of colour television displays", Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 64:1,331.See also: Baird, John LogieKF -
5 Bibliography
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New York: W. H. Freeman.■ Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to cal culation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.■ Wertheimer, M. (1945). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Bros.■ Whitehead, A. N. (1925). Science and the modern world. New York: Macmillan.■ Whorf, B. L. (1956). In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Whyte, L. L. (1962). The unconscious before Freud. New York: Anchor Books.■ Wiener, N. (1954). The human use of human beings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.■ Wiener, N. (1964). God & Golem, Inc.: A comment on certain points where cybernetics impinges on religion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winograd, T. (1972). Understanding natural language. New York: Academic Press.■ Winston, P. H. (1987). Artificial intelligence: A perspective. In E. L. Grimson & R. S. Patil (Eds.), AI in the 1980s and beyond (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winston, P. H. (Ed.) (1975). The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGrawHill.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and brown books. New York: Harper Colophon.■ Woods, W. A. (1975). What's in a link: Foundations for semantic networks. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representations and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 35-84). New York: Academic Press.■ Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt; London: Methuen (1939).■ Wundt, W. (1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Vol. 1). E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Wundt, W. (1907). Lectures on human and animal psychology. J. E. Creighton & E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Young, J. Z. (1978). Programs of the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.■ Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
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6 ir a la par
(v.) = proceed + in parallelEx. The first two stages can proceed in parallel with the third, the remaining stages are sequential.* * *ir a la par (con)(v.) = go + hand in hand (with), go + hand in glove withEx: Arts development can go hand in hand with libraries and information, but for librarians new to the field there can be pitfalls.
Ex: It is also the case that successful quality initiatives go hand in glove with greater work force participation.(v.) = proceed + in parallelEx: The first two stages can proceed in parallel with the third, the remaining stages are sequential.
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7 развертка
deflection тлв, broach(ing) bit, reamer bit, scan, scanning, ( инструмент) reamer, sweep* * *развё́ртка ж.1. ( металлорежущий инструмент) reamer2. ( представление сложной пространственной поверхности на плоскости) developmentиме́ть развё́ртку — be developableне име́ть развё́ртки — be nondevelopable3. ( чертёж) developed views4. ( во времени)1) тлв. ( изображение) scan(ning); ( движение луча) sweep2) ( в фототелеграфии) scan(ning)в развё́ртке наблюда́ется разреже́ние и сгуще́ние — the copy shows grouping of the recorded lineво вре́мя обра́тного хо́да развё́ртки — during flyback, during retraceво вре́мя прямо́го хо́да развё́ртки — during trace, during scanосуществля́ть развё́ртку масс-спе́ктров по магни́тному по́лю — scan the mass spectra by varying the magnetic field5. осцил. time-base, sweepрастя́гивать развё́ртку, напр. в 5 раз — expand the time-base [sweep] by, e. g., 5, extend the time-scale by, e. g., a factor of 56. рлк. ( движение луча по экрану) sweep; (изображение, рисуемое лучом на экране) display, indication, representation; (след, оставляемый развёрткой) sweep traceразвё́ртка а́зимута — azimuth sweepразвё́ртка враща́ющейся при́змой тлв. — rotating-prism scan(ning)временна́я развё́ртка рлк. — time-baseразвё́ртка да́льности рлк. — range sweepжду́щая развё́ртка осцил. — triggered time-base, triggered sweepзаде́ржанная развё́ртка осцил., рлк. — delayed sweepка́дровая развё́ртка тлв. — frame [vertical] scanкольцева́я развё́ртка1. осцил. circular sweep2. рлк. ( иногда неверно называется круговая) ( изображение) type I-display; ( движение луча) circular sweepкони́ческая развё́ртка — tapered reamerлине́йная развё́ртка1. рлк. ( изображение) A-display; ( движение луча) A-sweep2. осцил. linear sweepразвё́ртка листа́ — developmentмаши́нная развё́ртка — machine reamerмехани́ческая развё́ртка — mechanical scanningнасадна́я развё́ртка — shell reamerразвё́ртка нелине́йная развё́ртка — non-linear time-base, non-linear sweepнепреры́вная развё́ртка осцил. — ( без синхронизации) free-running sweep; ( с синхронизацией) synchronized sweepоднора́зовая развё́ртка — single-sweep time-base, single sweepопти́ческая развё́ртка — optical scan(ning)периоди́ческая развё́ртка осцил. — ( без синхронизации) free-running sweep; ( с синхронизацией) synchronized sweepплоскостна́я развё́ртка ( в фототелеграфии) — flat-bed scan(ning)после́довательная развё́ртка тлв. — line-sequential scanningпрямолине́йная развё́ртка — rectilinear scan(ning)радиа́льно-кругова́я развё́ртка — ( изображение) type P-display; ( движение луча) P-sweepрадиа́льно-кругова́я развё́ртка со смещё́нным це́нтром ( изображение) — off-centre type-P displayрадиа́льно-кругова́я развё́ртка с растя́нутым це́нтром ( изображение) — open-centre type-P displayразжи́мная развё́ртка — expansion reamerра́стровая развё́ртка1. рлк. ( изображение) two-dimensional [type-B] display; ( движение луча) two-dimensional sweep[b]2. тлв. raster scan(ning)растя́нутая развё́ртка рлк. — expanded sweepрегули́руемая развё́ртка — adjustable reamerручна́я развё́ртка — hand reamerразвё́ртка с винтовы́ми зу́бьями — helically-fluted reamerсе́кторная развё́ртка ( изображение) — sector displayразвё́ртка с неравноме́рным масшта́бом — deformed displayспира́льная развё́ртка ( движение луча) осцил., рлк. — spiral sweepразвё́ртка с прямы́ми зу́бьями — straight-fluted reamerразвё́ртка с равноме́рным масшта́бом — undeformed displayстартсто́пная развё́ртка ( в фототелеграфии) — start-stop scan(ning)стро́чная развё́ртка1. рлк. ( изображение) two-dimensional [type-B] display; ( движение луча) two-dimensional sweep[b]2. тлв. line [horizontal] scan(ning)развё́ртка ти́па «бегу́щий луч» тлв. — flying-spot scan(ning)развё́ртка ти́па МПМ [ти́па микропла́н ме́стности] — (type) micro-B displayтру́бная развё́ртка — pipe reamerразвё́ртка угла́ ме́ста рлк. — elevation sweepцилиндри́ческая развё́ртка — straight reamerчересстро́чная развё́ртка тлв. — interlaced scan(ning)чернова́я развё́ртка — roughing reamerчистова́я развё́ртка — finishing reamerэкспоненциа́льная развё́ртка осцил. — exponential sweepэлектро́нная развё́ртка — electronic scan(ning)эллипти́ческая развё́ртка — elliptical time-base* * *1) development; 2) broaching bit -
8 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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9 принцип неразборчивости
"anything goes" principleпринцип полноты (или универсальности) рынков — principle of completeness (or universality) of markets
принцип понятности (открытый Лангером с соавторами) — principle of intelligibility (discovered by Langer et al.)
принцип 'предположений и опровержений', эпистемологический — epistemological principle of 'conjectures and refutations'
принцип расчета вознаграждения за управление и за результат — basis for calculation of management and performance fees
принципы регулирования, теоретические — theoretical foundations of regulation
Теоретические принципы регулирования требуют некоторого знакомства с теорией стимулов, а это потребовало бы дополнительных разработок. — Theoretical foundations of regulation require some familiarity with the theory of incentives, which would require further development.
принципы репутации, рациональные — rational foundations of goodwill
Russian-English Dictionary "Microeconomics" > принцип неразборчивости
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10 линейная развёртка
1. рлк. A-display; A-sweep2. осцил. linear sweepнепрерывная развёртка — free-running sweep; synchronized sweep
периодическая развёртка — free-running sweep; synchronized sweep
радиально-круговая развёртка — type P-display; P-sweep
Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > линейная развёртка
См. также в других словарях:
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