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61 best-in-class
Gen Mgtleading a market or industrial sector in efficiency. A best-in-class organization exhibits exemplary best practice. Such an organization is clearly singled out from the pack and is recognized as a leader for its procedures for dealing with the acquisition and processing of materials, and the delivery of end products or services to its customers. The concept of best in class is closely allied with total quality management, and one tool that can help in achieving this status is benchmarking. -
62 Bakewell, Robert
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 23 May 1725 Loughborough, Englandd. 1 October 1795 Loughborough, England[br]English livestock breeder who pioneered the practice of progeny testing for selecting breeding stock; he is particularly associated with the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep.[br]Robert Bakewell was the son of the tenant farming the 500-acre (200 hectare) Dishley Grange Farm, near Loughborough, where he was born. The family was sufficiently wealthy to allow Robert to travel, which he began to do at an early age, exploring the farming methods of the West Country, Norfolk, Ireland and Holland. On taking over the farm he continued the development of the irrigation scheme begun by his father. Arthur Young visited the farm during his tour of east England in 1771. At that time it consisted of 440 acres (178 hectares), 110 acres (45 hectares) of which were arable, and carried a stock of 60 horses, 400 sheep and 150 other assorted beasts. Of the arable land, 30 acres (12 hectares) were under root crops, mainly turnips.Bakewell was not the first to pioneer selective breeding, but he was the first successfully to apply selection to both the efficiency with which an animal utilized its food, and its physical appearance. He always had a clear idea of the animal he wanted, travelled extensively to collect a range of animals possessing the characteristics he sought, and then bred from these towards his goal. He was aware of the dangers of inbreeding, but would often use it to gain the qualities he wanted. His early experiments were with Longhorn cattle, which he developed as a meat rather than a draught animal, but his most famous achievement was the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep. He set out to produce an animal that would put on the most meat in the least time and with the least feeding. As his base he chose the Old Leicester, but there is still doubt as to which other breeds he may have introduced to produce the desired results. The Improved Leicester was smaller than its ancestor, with poorer wool quality but with greatly improved meat-production capacity.Bakewell let out his sires to other farms and was therefore able to study their development under differing conditions. However, he made stringent rules for those who hired these animals, requiring the exclusive use of his rams on the farms concerned and requiring particular dietary conditions to be met. To achieve this control he established the Dishley Society in 1783. Although his policies led to accusations of closed access to his stock, they enabled him to keep a close control of all offspring. He thereby pioneered the process now recognized as "progeny testing".Bakewell's fame and that of his farm spread throughout the country and overseas. He engaged in an extensive correspondence and acted as host to all of influence in British and overseas agriculture, but it would appear that he was an over-generous host, since he is known to have been in financial difficulties in about 1789. He was saved from bankruptcy by a public subscription raised to allow him to continue with his breeding experiments; this experience may well have been the reason why he was such a staunch advocate of State funding of agricultural research.[br]Further ReadingWilliam Houseman, 1894, biography, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. 1–31. H.C.Parsons, 1957, Robert Bakewell (contains a more detailed account).R.Trow Smith, 1957, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul.—A History of British Livestock Husbandry 1700 to 1900 (places Bakewell within the context of overall developments).M.L.Ryder, 1983, Sheep and Man, Duckworth (a scientifically detailed account which deals with Bakewell within the context of its particular subject).AP -
63 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, Franced. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France[br]French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.[br]Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.Bibliography1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.Further Reading"Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.ASDBiographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
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64 Dale, David
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 6 January 1739 Stewarton, Ayrshire, Scotlandd. 17 March 1806 Glasgow, Scotland[br]Scottish developer of a large textile business in find around Glasgow, including the cotton-spinning mills at New Lanark.[br]David Dale, the son of a grocer, began his working life by herding cattle. His connection with the textile industry started when he was apprenticed to a Paisley weaver. After this he travelled the country buying home-spun linen yarns, which he sold in Glasgow. At about the age of 24 he settled in Glasgow as Clerk to a silk merchant. He then started a business importing fine yarns from France and Holland for weaving good-quality cloths such as cambrics. Dale was to become one of the pre-eminent yarn dealers in Scotland. In 1778 he acquired the first cotton-spinning mill built in Scotland by an English company at Rothesay on the Isle of Bute. In 1784 he met Richard Arkwright, who was touring Scotland, and together they visited the Falls of the Clyde near the town of Lanark. Arkwright immediately recognized the potential of the site for driving water-powered mills. Dale acquired part of the area from Lord Braxfield and in 1785 began to build his first mill there in partnership with Arkwright. The association with Arkwright soon ceased, however, and by c.1795 Dale had erected four mills. Because the location of the mills was remote, he built houses for the workers and then employed pauper children brought from the slums of Edinburgh and Glasgow; at one time there were over 400 of them. Dale's attitude to his workers was benevolent and humane. He tried to provide reasonable working conditions and the mills were well designed with a large workshop in which machinery was constructed. Dale was also a partner in mills at Catrine, Newton Stewart, Spinningdale in Sutherlandshire and some others. In 1785 he established the first Turkey red dye works in Scotland and was in partnership with George Macintosh, the father of Charles Macintosh. Dale manufactured cloth in Glasgow and from 1783 was Agent for the Royal Bank of Scotland, a lucrative position. In 1799 he was persuaded by Robert Owen to sell the New Lanark mills for £60,000 to a Manchester partnership which made Owen the Manager. Owen had married Dale's daughter, Anne Caroline, in 1799. Possibly due in part to poor health, Dale retired in 1800 to Rosebank near Glasgow, having made a large fortune. In 1770 he had withdrawn from the established Church of Scotland and founded a new one called the "Old Independents". He visited the various branches of this Church, as well as convicts in Bridewell prison, to preach. He was also a great benefactor to the poor in Glasgow. He had a taste for music and sang old Scottish songs with great gusto.[br]Further ReadingDictionary of National Biography.R.Owen, 1857, The Life of Robert Owen, written by himself, London (mentions Dale).Through his association with New Lanark and Robert Owen, details about Dale may be found in J.Butt (ed.), 1971, Robert Owen, Prince of Cotton Spinners, Newton Abbot; S.Pollard and J.Salt (eds), 1971, Robert Owen, Prophet of the Poor: essays in honour of the two-hundredth anniversary of his birth, London.RLH -
65 Ebener, Erasmus
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 21 December 1511 Nuremberg, Germanyd. 24 November 1577 Helmstedt, Germany[br]German mining entrepreneur who introduced a new method ofbrassmaking.[br]A descendant of Nuremberg nobility, Ebener became recognized as a statesman in his native city and was employed also by foreign dignitaries. His appointment as Privy Councillor to the Dukes of Brunswick involved him in mining and metallurgical affairs at the great Rammelsberg mixed-ore mine at Goslar in the Harz mountains. About 1550, at Rammelsberg, Ebener is believed to have made brass by incorporating accretions of zinc formed in crevices of local lead-smelting furnaces. This small-scale production of impure zinc, formerly discarded as waste, could be used to replace calamine, the carbonate ore of zinc, which by tradition had been combined with copper in European brassmaking. Ercker, writing in 1574, mentions the accretions at Goslar obtained by removing furnace sections to make this material available for brass. The true nature of the zinc ore, calamine, and zinc metal compared with these accretions was determined only much later, but variation in quality with respect to impurities made the material most suitable for cast brassware rather than beaten goods. As quantities were small and much valued, distribution from Goslar was limited, not normally reaching Britain, where production of brasses continued to rely on calamine or expensive zinc imports from the East. Rammelsberg profited from the waste material accumulating over the years and its use at Bundheim brassworks east of Goslar. Ebener partnered Duke Henry the Younger of Brunswick in financing a new drainage adit at Rammelsberg, and was later granted several iron mines and smelting works. From 1556 he was granted rights to market calamine from the Lower Harz and copper sulphate from Rammelsberg. Ebener later had an important role at the court of Duke Julius, son of Henry, advising him on the founding of Helmstedt University.[br]Bibliography1572, "Sundry expositions on mines, metals and other useful things found in the Harz and especially at the Rammelsberg", reproduced and annotated by F.J.F.Meyer and J.F.L.Hausmann, 1805 Hercynian Archive.Further ReadingBeckmann, 1846, History of Inventions, Vol. II, trans. William Johnston, London (the most concise account).W.Bornhardt, 1989, "The History of Rammelsberg Mine", trans. T.A.Morrison, The Mining Journal (has additional brief references to Ebener in the context of Rammelsberg).JD -
66 Mudge, Thomas
SUBJECT AREA: Horology[br]b. 1715 Exeter, Englandd. 14 November 1794 Walworth, England[br]English clock-and watchmaker who invented the lever escapement that was ultimately used in all mechanical watches.[br]Thomas Mudge was the son of a clergyman and schoolmaster who, recognizing his son's mechanical aptitude, apprenticed him to the eminent London clock-and watchmaker George Graham. Mudge became free of the Clockmakers' Company in 1738 and set up on his own account after Graham's death in 1751. Around 1755 he formed a partnership with William Dutton, another apprentice of Graham. The firm produced conventional clocks and watches of excellent quality, but Mudge had also established a reputation for making highly innovative individual pieces. The most significant of these was the watch with a detached-lever escapement that he completed in 1770, although the idea had occurred to him as early as 1754. This watch was purchased by George III for Queen Charlotte and is still in the Royal Collection. Shortly afterwards Mudge moved to Plymouth, to devote his time to the perfection of the marine chronometer, leaving the London business in the hands of Dutton. The chronometers he produced were comparable in performance to those of John Harrison, but like them they were too complicated and expensive to be produced in quantity.Mudge's patron, Count Bruhl, recognized the potential of the detached-lever escapement, but Mudge was too involved with his marine chronometers to make a watch for him. He did, however, provide Bruhl with a large-scale model of his escapement, from which the Swiss expatriate Josiah Emery was able to make a watch in 1782. Over the next decade Emery made a limited number of similar watches for wealthy clients, and it was the performance of these watches that demonstrated the worth of the escapement. The detached-lever escapement took some time to be adopted universally, but this was facilitated in the nineteenth century by the development of a cheaper form, the pin lever.By the end of the century the detached-lever escapement was used in one form or another in practically all mechanical watches and portable clocks. If a watch is to be a good timekeeper the balance must be free to swing with as little interference as possible from the escapement. In this respect the cylinder escapement is an improvement on the verge, although it still exerts a frictional force on the balance. The lever escapement is a further improvement because it detaches itself from the balance after delivering the impulse which keeps it oscillating.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsClockmaker to George III 1776.Further ReadingT.Mudge, Jr, 1799, A Description with Plates of the Time-Keeper Invented by the Late Mr. Thomas Mudge, London (contains a tract written by his father and the text of his letters to Count Bruhl).C.Clutton and G.Daniels, 1986, Watches, 4th edn, London (provides further biographical information and a good account of the history of the lever watch).R.Good, 1978, Britten's Watch \& Clock Maker's Handbook Dictionary and Guide, 16th edn, London, pp. 190–200 (provides a good technical description of Mudge's lever escapement and its later development).DV -
67 جوهر
جَوْهَر \ essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. nature: the qualities that make one thing different from another; the qualities of a kind or class: Scientists study the nature of every chemical substance. \ جَوْهَر الموضوع \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. -
68 خلاصة
خُلاصَة \ digest: a short account, for easy reading; a collection of such accounts. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. summary: a short statement of the main points (in a story, report, etc.). \ See Also مختصر (مُخْتَصَر) -
69 روح
رُوح \ essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is the essence of roses. \ بِلا رُوح \ lifeless: having no life; dull; without expression or interest: The bad actor gave a lifeless performance. \ رُوح \ ghost: a dead person’s spirit that appears to a living person. life: the signs of not being dead; activity; movement; expression: Put more life into your acting, sb.’s existence as a living person Many lives were lost in the war. soul: a person’s spirit, which is thought not to die with his body. spirit: a feeling that controls one’s behaviour: If you play a game in the right spirit, winning or losing does not really matter. \ See Also طيف (طَيْف)، شبح (شَبَح)، نشاط( نشاط)، حيوية (حيويّة)، نفس( نفس) \ رُوحٌ رِيَاضِيَّة \ sportsmanship: sporting qualities; fairness; obeying the rules; generosity. \ الرُّوح القُدُس \ Holy Ghost, Holy Spirit: (among Christians) the spirit of God that is always present but never seen. ghost, the Holy Ghost: (among Christians) the spirit of God that is always present but never seen. \ الرُّوح المَعْنَوِيَّة \ morale: the state of mind that controls one’s supply of courage; spirits: After losing three matches, our team’s morale was low. \ رُوح المُغامَرَة \ enterprise: the qualities needed for such a plan; the bold use of good brains. -
70 لب
لُبّ \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. heart: the centre of anything: He lives in the heart of the forest. kernel: the edible part of a nut, inside the shell. \ See Also جوهر (جَوْهَر)، خلاصة (خُلاصَة)، قلب (قَلْب) \ لُبّ \ core: the hard middle part of such fruits as the apple. \ See Also قلب الثمرة -
71 مستخلص
مُسْتَخْلَص \ essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. -
72 مستقطر
مُسْتَقْطَر \ essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: That perfume is essence of roses. \ مُسْتَقْطَر \ distilled. \ _(field) Chem., Phys. \ See Also مقطر (مُقَطَّر) -
73 core
لُبّ \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. heart: the centre of anything: He lives in the heart of the forest. kernel: the edible part of a nut, inside the shell. \ See Also جوهر (جَوْهَر)، خلاصة (خُلاصَة)، قلب (قَلْب) -
74 essence
لُبّ \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. heart: the centre of anything: He lives in the heart of the forest. kernel: the edible part of a nut, inside the shell. \ See Also جوهر (جَوْهَر)، خلاصة (خُلاصَة)، قلب (قَلْب) -
75 heart
لُبّ \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. heart: the centre of anything: He lives in the heart of the forest. kernel: the edible part of a nut, inside the shell. \ See Also جوهر (جَوْهَر)، خلاصة (خُلاصَة)، قلب (قَلْب) -
76 kernel
لُبّ \ core: the most important part of an idea, difficulty, etc.. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. heart: the centre of anything: He lives in the heart of the forest. kernel: the edible part of a nut, inside the shell. \ See Also جوهر (جَوْهَر)، خلاصة (خُلاصَة)، قلب (قَلْب) -
77 digest
خُلاصَة \ digest: a short account, for easy reading; a collection of such accounts. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. summary: a short statement of the main points (in a story, report, etc.). \ See Also مختصر (مُخْتَصَر) -
78 essence
خُلاصَة \ digest: a short account, for easy reading; a collection of such accounts. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. summary: a short statement of the main points (in a story, report, etc.). \ See Also مختصر (مُخْتَصَر) -
79 gist
خُلاصَة \ digest: a short account, for easy reading; a collection of such accounts. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. summary: a short statement of the main points (in a story, report, etc.). \ See Also مختصر (مُخْتَصَر) -
80 summary
خُلاصَة \ digest: a short account, for easy reading; a collection of such accounts. essence: the central or most important quality of sth., by which it can be recognized; the best part of a substance when taken out: The essence of his religious teaching is love for all men. That perfume is essence of roses. gist: the general sense of what is said: My French is weak, but I got the gist of his speech. summary: a short statement of the main points (in a story, report, etc.). \ See Also مختصر (مُخْتَصَر)
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