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41 Chanute, Octave Alexandre
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 18 February 1832 Paris, Franced. 24 November 1910 Chicago, USA[br]American engineer, developer of successful hang-gliders in the 1890s and disseminator of aeronautical information.[br]Chanute was born in Paris, but from the age of 6 he lived in the United States, where he became a prominent railway engineer. He developed an interest in aviation relatively late in life, and in fact built his first glider at the age of 64. Before that, he had collected all the information he could find on aviation, especially on the work of Otto Lilienthal in Germany. In 1894 he published an account of these researches in a classic work, Progress in Flying Machines.By 1896 Chanute was ready to carry out practical experiments of his own and designed a series of hang-gliders. He started with a Lilienthal-type monoplane and progressed to his very successful biplane glider. He used a bridge-truss method of cross-bracing to give his wings the required strength, a system used by many of his successors, including the Wright brothers. Chanute's gliders were flown on the shore of Lake Michigan by his two young assistants A.M.Herring and W.Avery. The biplane glider made some seven hundred flights without mishap, covering up to 100 m (110 yds). In 1898 Herring fitted an engine into a modified glider and claimed to have made two short hops.In 1900 the Wright brothers made contact with Chanute and sought his advice, which he readily gave, indeed, he became one of their most trusted advisors. In 1903 Chanute travelled to Paris and gave an illustrated lecture describing his own and the Wrights' gliding successes, generating much interest amongst European aviators.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Aeronautical Society Gold Medal 1910.Bibliography1894, Progress in Flying Machines, New York (Chanute's classic work).Further ReadingC.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1986, Aviation, London.—1965, The Invention of the Aeroplane 1799–1909, London (both describe Chanute's place in the history of aviation).T.D.Crouch, A Dream of Wings, Americans and the Airplane 1875–1905 (includes several chapters on Chanute and a comprehensive bibliography).Chanute is also mentioned in most of the biographies of the Wright brothers.JDSBiographical history of technology > Chanute, Octave Alexandre
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42 Dunne, John William
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 2 December 1875 Co. Kildare, Irelandd. 24 August 1949 Oxfordshire, England[br]Irish inventor who pioneered tailless aircraft designed to be inherently stable.[br]After serving in the British Army during the Boer War. Dunne returned home convinced that aeroplanes would be more suitable than balloons for reconnaissance work. He built models to test his ideas for a tailless design based on the winged seed of a Javanese climbing plant. In 1906 Dunne joined the staff of the Balloon Factory at Farnborough, where the Superintendent, Colonel J.E.Capper, was also interested in manned kites and aeroplanes. Since 1904 the colourful American "Colonel" S.F. Cody had been experimenting at Farnborough with manned kites, and in 1908 his "British Army Dirigible No. 1" made the first powered flight in Britain. Dunne's first swept-wing tailless glider was ready to fly in the spring of 1907, but it was deemed to be a military secret and flying it at Farnborough would be too public. Dunne, Colonel Capper and a team of army engineers took the glider to a remote site at Blair Atholl in Scotland for its test flights. It was not a great success, although it attracted snoopers, with the result that it was camouflaged. Powered versions made short hops in 1908, but then the War Office withdrew its support. Dunne and his associates set up a syndicate to continue the development of a new tailless aeroplane, the D 5; this was built by Short Brothers (see Short, Hugh Oswald) and flew successfully in 1910. It had combined elevators and ailerons on the wing tips (or elevons as they are now called when fitted to modern delta-winged aircraft). In 1913 an improved version of the D 5 was demonstrated in France, where the pilot left his cockpit and walked along the wing in flight. Dunne had proved his point and designed a stable aircraft, but his health was suffering and he retired. During the First World War, however, it was soon learned that military aircraft needed to be manoeuvrable rather than stable.[br]Bibliography1913, "The theory of the Dunne aeroplane", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (April).After he left aviation, Dunne became well known for his writings on the nature of the universe and the interpretation of dreams. His best known-work was An ExperimentWith Time (1927; and reprints).Further ReadingP.B.Walker, 1971, Early Aviation at Farnborough, Vol. I, London; 1974, Vol. II (provides a detailed account of Dunne's early work; Vol. II is the more relevant).P.Lewis, 1962, British Air craft 1809–1914, London (for details of Dunne's aircraft).JDS -
43 Falcon
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]fl. c.1728 France[br]French improver of the pattern-selection apparatus of Bouchon for weaving.[br]In 1728, Falcon used punched cards, one for each pick, to replace the roll of pierced paper that Bouchon had used for storing the pattern to be woven. The selection of the leashes was the same as the method used by Bouchon. The appropriate card was pressed against a set of horizontal needles at the side of the loom by the drawboy, who then lifted those leashes that had been selected ready for the weaver to send the shuttle across for that pick. The cards could be sewn up into an endless loop so the pattern could be repeated time after time. This apparatus could select a greater width of pattern than Bouchon's because the cards were pressed against the needles by a square block of wood known as the prism or cylinder. This meant that rows of needles could be mounted below each other, allowing for many more to be fitted into the space. Vaucanson tried to make alterations to this apparatus, but the Falcon method remained in use until 1817 at Lyon and formed the basis for the later improvements by Jacquard.[br]Further ReadingM.Daumas (ed.), 1968, Histoire générale des techniques, Vol. III, L'Expansion du machinisme, Paris.Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, 1942, Catalogue du musée, section T, industries textiles, teintures et apprêtes, Paris (includes a picture of a model of Falcon's apparatus in the museum).RLH -
44 Science
It is a common notion, or at least it is implied in many common modes of speech, that the thoughts, feelings, and actions of sentient beings are not a subject of science.... This notion seems to involve some confusion of ideas, which it is necessary to begin by clearing up. Any facts are fitted, in themselves, to be a subject of science, which follow one another according to constant laws; although those laws may not have been discovered, nor even to be discoverable by our existing resources. (Mill, 1900, B. VI, Chap. 3, Sec. 1)One class of natural philosophers has always a tendency to combine the phenomena and to discover their analogies; another class, on the contrary, employs all its efforts in showing the disparities of things. Both tendencies are necessary for the perfection of science, the one for its progress, the other for its correctness. The philosophers of the first of these classes are guided by the sense of unity throughout nature; the philosophers of the second have their minds more directed towards the certainty of our knowledge. The one are absorbed in search of principles, and neglect often the peculiarities, and not seldom the strictness of demonstration; the other consider the science only as the investigation of facts, but in their laudable zeal they often lose sight of the harmony of the whole, which is the character of truth. Those who look for the stamp of divinity on every thing around them, consider the opposite pursuits as ignoble and even as irreligious; while those who are engaged in the search after truth, look upon the other as unphilosophical enthusiasts, and perhaps as phantastical contemners of truth.... This conflict of opinions keeps science alive, and promotes it by an oscillatory progress. (Oersted, 1920, p. 352)Most of the fundamental ideas of science are essentially simple, and may, as a rule, be expressed in a language comprehensible to everyone. (Einstein & Infeld, 1938, p. 27)A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it. (Planck, 1949, pp. 33-34)[Original quotation: "Eine neue wissenschaftliche Wahrheit pflegt sich nicht in der Weise durchzusetzen, dass ihre Gegner ueberzeugt werden und sich as belehrt erklaeren, sondern vielmehr dadurch, dass die Gegner allmaehlich aussterben und dass die heranwachsende Generation von vornherein mit der Wahrheit vertraut gemacht ist." (Planck, 1990, p. 15)]I had always looked upon the search for the absolute as the noblest and most worth while task of science. (Planck, 1949, p. 46)If you cannot-in the long run-tell everyone what you have been doing, your doing has been worthless. (SchroЁdinger, 1951, pp. 7-8)Even for the physicist the description in plain language will be a criterion of the degree of understanding that has been reached. (Heisenberg, 1958, p. 168)The old scientific ideal of episteґmeґ-of absolutely certain, demonstrable knowledge-has proved to be an idol. The demand for scientific objectivity makes it inevitable that every scientific statement must remain tentative forever. It may indeed be corroborated, but every corroboration is relative to other statements which, again, are tentative. Only in our subjective experiences of conviction, in our subjective faith, can we be "absolutely certain." (Popper, 1959, p. 280)The layman, taught to revere scientists for their absolute respect for the observed facts, and for the judiciously detached and purely provisional manner in which they hold scientific theories (always ready to abandon a theory at the sight of any contradictory evidence) might well have thought that, at Miller's announcement of this overwhelming evidence of a "positive effect" [indicating that the speed of light is not independent from the motion of the observer, as Einstein's theory of relativity demands] in his presidential address to the American Physical Society on December 29th, 1925, his audience would have instantly abandoned the theory of relativity. Or, at the very least, that scientists-wont to look down from the pinnacle of their intellectual humility upon the rest of dogmatic mankind-might suspend judgment in this matter until Miller's results could be accounted for without impairing the theory of relativity. But no: by that time they had so well closed their minds to any suggestion which threatened the new rationality achieved by Einstein's world-picture, that it was almost impossible for them to think again in different terms. Little attention was paid to the experiments, the evidence being set aside in the hope that it would one day turn out to be wrong. (Polanyi, 1958, pp. 12-13)The practice of normal science depends on the ability, acquired from examplars, to group objects and situations into similarity sets which are primitive in the sense that the grouping is done without an answer to the question, "Similar with respect to what?" (Kuhn, 1970, p. 200)Science in general... does not consist in collecting what we already know and arranging it in this or that kind of pattern. It consists in fastening upon something we do not know, and trying to discover it. (Collingwood, 1972, p. 9)Scientific fields emerge as the concerns of scientists congeal around various phenomena. Sciences are not defined, they are recognized. (Newell, 1973a, p. 1)This is often the way it is in physics-our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but that we do not take them seriously enough. I do not think it is possible really to understand the successes of science without understanding how hard it is-how easy it is to be led astray, how difficult it is to know at any time what is the next thing to be done. (Weinberg, 1977, p. 49)Science is wonderful at destroying metaphysical answers, but incapable of providing substitute ones. Science takes away foundations without providing a replacement. Whether we want to be there or not, science has put us in a position of having to live without foundations. It was shocking when Nietzsche said this, but today it is commonplace; our historical position-and no end to it is in sight-is that of having to philosophize without "foundations." (Putnam, 1987, p. 29)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Science
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45 mücehhez
"/la/ 1. equipped (with), furnished (with), fitted out (with); possessing. 2. prepared or ready (with)." -
46 קשט
קָשַׁטm. (b. h.) (to be straight, strong, 1) to go in a straight line, to shoot forth. Num. R. s. 12 יש מזיק … וקוֹשֵׁט כחץ some demon flies like a bird and shoots through the air like an arrow; Midr. Till. to Ps. 91; Yalk. ib. 842 וקוֹשֵׁת; Tanḥ. Naso 23 וקושש (corr. acc.); ed. Bub. 28.Y.Meg.I, 72b מאיכן ק׳ הקוֹשֵׁט הזהוכ׳ whence did this archer shoot (whence did he derive the opinion) that (cmp. יָרָה Hif.). 2) to correct. B. Mets. 107b, v. infra. Pi. קִישֵּׁט 1) to shoot, aim, direct. Tosef.Erub.IX (VI), 26 ביבין המְקַשְּׁטִיןוכ׳ ed. Zuck. (Var. המשקטין, המְקַשְׁקְשִׁין, v. קִשְׁקֵש II) gutters which gush under the houses (cmp. קָלַח). Lam. R. to III, 12 מקושטים בה Ar. s. v. קורה, read: מְקַשְּׁטִים (Ar. ed. Koh. מְקוֹשְׁשִׁים; ed. מוֹרִים), v. חֵץ.Part. pass. מְקיּשָּׁט; f. מְקוּשֶּׁטֶת; pl. מְקוּשָּׁטִים, מְקוּשָּׁטִין; מְקוּשָּׁטוֹת. Pesik. R. s. 40 (play on מוריה, with ref. to ירה יירה, Ex. 19:13) שהיתה מק׳ כנגדוכ׳ it (the holy land) was aimed towards (directly under) the heavenly altar (v. כּוּן); Yalk. Cant. 988. Ib. כשם שגודלת הזו … להיות מקושטיםוכ׳ (not מקושטת) as the hair-dresser dressing the bride puts every ornament in its proper place, so must the words of the Law be aimed, every word in its due place. 2) (cmp. תקן) to dress, adorn, prepare. Ib. שמְקַשֶּׁטֶת לכלה, v. supra. Gen. R. s. 8 מְקַשֵּׁט כלות he (the Lord) attires brides; Koh. R. to VII, 2. Ib.; Gen. R. s. 18 משקִשְּׁטָהּוכ׳ after having fitted her out with twenty-four kinds of ornaments; a. fr.Part. pass. as ab. Sabb.25b מטה מוצעת ואשה מק׳ לתלמיד חכם the scholars happiness when the couch is spread and the wife dressed (for the Sabbath). Ib. 153a כשהן מק׳ in festive dress, opp. מלוכלכין; a. fr.Trnsf. to set right, correct. Snh.18a (ref. to התקוששו וקושו, Zeph. 2:1) קִשֵּׁט … קשט אחרים first correct thyself, then correct others; ib. 19a; B. Bath.60b; B. Mets. 107b קְשוֹטוכ׳; Yalk. Jer. 302; Midr. Till. to Ps. 53 אם תרצה לקַשֵּׁט אחריםוכ׳ if thou wishest to correct others, correct thyself first. Hif. הִקְשִׁיט to prepare, make ready. Gen. R. s. 28 הקב״ה היפך … והִקְשִׁיטָןוכ׳ the Lord turned day into night and prepared them for visitations; (Yalk. Job 920 והתקינן). Hithpa. הִתְקַשֵּׁט 1) to dress, adorn ones self. Num. R. s. 2 אבן יקרה שמִתְקַשְּׁטוֹתוכ׳ a precious stone with which women adorn themselves; a. e. 2) to be verified, justified (cmp. קְשוֹט). Gen. R. s. 55 בשביל שתִּתְקַשֵּׁטוכ׳, v. קוֹשֶׁט; Yalk. ib. 95; Yalk. Ps. 777. -
47 קָשַׁט
קָשַׁטm. (b. h.) (to be straight, strong, 1) to go in a straight line, to shoot forth. Num. R. s. 12 יש מזיק … וקוֹשֵׁט כחץ some demon flies like a bird and shoots through the air like an arrow; Midr. Till. to Ps. 91; Yalk. ib. 842 וקוֹשֵׁת; Tanḥ. Naso 23 וקושש (corr. acc.); ed. Bub. 28.Y.Meg.I, 72b מאיכן ק׳ הקוֹשֵׁט הזהוכ׳ whence did this archer shoot (whence did he derive the opinion) that (cmp. יָרָה Hif.). 2) to correct. B. Mets. 107b, v. infra. Pi. קִישֵּׁט 1) to shoot, aim, direct. Tosef.Erub.IX (VI), 26 ביבין המְקַשְּׁטִיןוכ׳ ed. Zuck. (Var. המשקטין, המְקַשְׁקְשִׁין, v. קִשְׁקֵש II) gutters which gush under the houses (cmp. קָלַח). Lam. R. to III, 12 מקושטים בה Ar. s. v. קורה, read: מְקַשְּׁטִים (Ar. ed. Koh. מְקוֹשְׁשִׁים; ed. מוֹרִים), v. חֵץ.Part. pass. מְקיּשָּׁט; f. מְקוּשֶּׁטֶת; pl. מְקוּשָּׁטִים, מְקוּשָּׁטִין; מְקוּשָּׁטוֹת. Pesik. R. s. 40 (play on מוריה, with ref. to ירה יירה, Ex. 19:13) שהיתה מק׳ כנגדוכ׳ it (the holy land) was aimed towards (directly under) the heavenly altar (v. כּוּן); Yalk. Cant. 988. Ib. כשם שגודלת הזו … להיות מקושטיםוכ׳ (not מקושטת) as the hair-dresser dressing the bride puts every ornament in its proper place, so must the words of the Law be aimed, every word in its due place. 2) (cmp. תקן) to dress, adorn, prepare. Ib. שמְקַשֶּׁטֶת לכלה, v. supra. Gen. R. s. 8 מְקַשֵּׁט כלות he (the Lord) attires brides; Koh. R. to VII, 2. Ib.; Gen. R. s. 18 משקִשְּׁטָהּוכ׳ after having fitted her out with twenty-four kinds of ornaments; a. fr.Part. pass. as ab. Sabb.25b מטה מוצעת ואשה מק׳ לתלמיד חכם the scholars happiness when the couch is spread and the wife dressed (for the Sabbath). Ib. 153a כשהן מק׳ in festive dress, opp. מלוכלכין; a. fr.Trnsf. to set right, correct. Snh.18a (ref. to התקוששו וקושו, Zeph. 2:1) קִשֵּׁט … קשט אחרים first correct thyself, then correct others; ib. 19a; B. Bath.60b; B. Mets. 107b קְשוֹטוכ׳; Yalk. Jer. 302; Midr. Till. to Ps. 53 אם תרצה לקַשֵּׁט אחריםוכ׳ if thou wishest to correct others, correct thyself first. Hif. הִקְשִׁיט to prepare, make ready. Gen. R. s. 28 הקב״ה היפך … והִקְשִׁיטָןוכ׳ the Lord turned day into night and prepared them for visitations; (Yalk. Job 920 והתקינן). Hithpa. הִתְקַשֵּׁט 1) to dress, adorn ones self. Num. R. s. 2 אבן יקרה שמִתְקַשְּׁטוֹתוכ׳ a precious stone with which women adorn themselves; a. e. 2) to be verified, justified (cmp. קְשוֹט). Gen. R. s. 55 בשביל שתִּתְקַשֵּׁטוכ׳, v. קוֹשֶׁט; Yalk. ib. 95; Yalk. Ps. 777.
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Ready — Read y (r[e^]d [y^]), a. [Compar. {Readier} (r[e^]d [i^]*[ e]r); superl. {Readiest}.] [AS. r[=ae]de; akin to D. gereed, bereid, G. bereit, Goth. gar[ a]ids fixed, arranged, and possibly to E. ride, as meaning originally, prepared for riding. Cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Ready money — Ready Read y (r[e^]d [y^]), a. [Compar. {Readier} (r[e^]d [i^]*[ e]r); superl. {Readiest}.] [AS. r[=ae]de; akin to D. gereed, bereid, G. bereit, Goth. gar[ a]ids fixed, arranged, and possibly to E. ride, as meaning originally, prepared for riding … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
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ready — adj 1. prepared, primed, all set, set, in readiness, Latin, semper paratus, Latin, animis opibusque parati; in condition, fit, in shape, in practice, on one s toes; up to, equal to; mature, ripe, seasoned; equipped, booted and spurred, fitted out … A Note on the Style of the synonym finder
ready — Prepared for what one is about to do or experience; equipped or supplied with what is needed for some act or event; prepared for immediate movement or action. Fitted, arranged, or placed for immediate use; causing no delay for lack of being… … Black's law dictionary
fitted — fit·ted || fɪtɪd adj. adapted, adjusted; made to conform; suited; installed; equipped fɪt n. adjustment, adaptation of one thing to another; manner in which something fits; seizure, spasm; outburst of temper or other emotion; sudden impulse v … English contemporary dictionary
ready — a. 1. Prepared, in readiness, fitted. 2. Prompt, quick, expeditious. 3. Apt, expert, dexterous, keen, prompt, nimble, unhesitating, facile, adroit, clever, quick, sharp, smart, skilful, handy. 4. Willing, disposed, inclined, free, cheerful. 5.… … New dictionary of synonyms
All ready — Ready Read y (r[e^]d [y^]), a. [Compar. {Readier} (r[e^]d [i^]*[ e]r); superl. {Readiest}.] [AS. r[=ae]de; akin to D. gereed, bereid, G. bereit, Goth. gar[ a]ids fixed, arranged, and possibly to E. ride, as meaning originally, prepared for riding … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
To make ready — Ready Read y (r[e^]d [y^]), a. [Compar. {Readier} (r[e^]d [i^]*[ e]r); superl. {Readiest}.] [AS. r[=ae]de; akin to D. gereed, bereid, G. bereit, Goth. gar[ a]ids fixed, arranged, and possibly to E. ride, as meaning originally, prepared for riding … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
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