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reading+renaissance

  • 1 Reading Renaissance

    Education: RR

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > Reading Renaissance

  • 2 cuidar

    v.
    1 to look after (enfermo, niño, casa).
    Ella cuida a los chicos She looks after the kids.
    2 to take care of, to assist, to look after, to keep after.
    Ricardo cuida a sus padres Richard takes care of his parents.
    3 to keep watch over, to watch.
    El guarda cuida la casa The guard keeps watch over the house.
    4 to make an effort to, to take care to.
    Cuidamos mantener un buen servicio We take care to maintain a good service.
    * * *
    1 to look after, take care of, care for
    1 to take care of oneself, look after oneself
    ■ ¡cuídate mucho! take good care of yourself!
    \
    cuidar(se) de que to make sure that
    cuidar los detalles to pay attention to details
    cuidar una herida to dress a wound
    cuidarse de (preocuparse) to worry about, mind
    * * *
    verb
    1) to take care of, look after
    2) pay attention to, watch
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=atender) [+ familia, jardín, edificio] to look after, take care of; [+ rebaño] to tend
    2) (=preocuparse por) [+ muebles, propiedades, entorno, salud] to look after, take care of

    no cuidan nada la casa — they don't look after the house at all, they don't take any care of the house

    3) (=poner atención en) [+ detalles, ortografía] to pay attention to, take care over

    en ese restaurante cuidan mucho los detalles — they pay great attention to detail o take great care over the details in that restaurant

    2. VI
    1)

    • cuidar de — to look after, take care of

    ¿quién cuidará de ti? — who will look after you?, who will take care of you?

    • cuidar de hacer algo — to take care to do sth

    • cuidar de que — to make sure that

    2)

    • cuidar con — † to be careful of

    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) <juguetes/plantas/casa> to look after; < niño> to look after, take care of; < enfermo> to care for, look after

    tienes que cuidar ese catarro/la salud — you should look after that cold/your health

    b) <estilo/apariencia> to take care over
    2.
    cuidar vi

    cuidar de algo/alguien — to take care of something/somebody

    cuidar DE QUE + SUBJ: cuidarré de que no les falte nada — I'll make sure they have everything they need

    3.
    cuidarse v pron
    a) (refl) to take care of oneself, look after oneself

    cuidarse de + inf: se cuidó mucho or muy bien de (no) volver por ahí he took good care not to o he made very sure he didn't go back there; cuídate mucho de desobedecerme — you'd better do as I tell you

    cuidar se DE + INF: se cuidó bien de cerrar las ventanas — she made sure she shut the windows

    * * *
    = nurture, take + care of, tend, lubricate, nurse, give + care, groom.
    Ex. Studying the leisure reading preferences of teens can help library media specialists develop collections and programs that nurture a lifelong love of reading.
    Ex. The matter of bulk is well taken care of by improved microfilm.
    Ex. The flow of production dependent upon rows of clattering machines tended by tired children.
    Ex. The development of ABN has been lubricated by goodwill on the part of the parties involved.
    Ex. The author also evokes the story of the wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus in order to suggest the barbarity of Renaissance Rome.
    Ex. The traditional image of nurses, mostly women, in starched uniforms and white caps, giving care at the bedside in the hospital is out of date.
    Ex. Never has there been a greater interest in grooming pubic hair than there is today.
    ----
    * cuidar a Alguien hasta su recuperación = nurse + Nombre + back to health.
    * cuidar de = look after, care (about/for), watch out for.
    * cuidar de la retaguardia = hold + the fort, hold + the fortress.
    * cuidar del rebaño = tend + flock.
    * cuidar ovejas = herd + sheep.
    * cuidar rebaños = herding.
    * cuidarse de = beware (of/that).
    * familiar que cuida de los mayores = kinkeeper.
    * persona que se cuida la línea = weight watcher.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) <juguetes/plantas/casa> to look after; < niño> to look after, take care of; < enfermo> to care for, look after

    tienes que cuidar ese catarro/la salud — you should look after that cold/your health

    b) <estilo/apariencia> to take care over
    2.
    cuidar vi

    cuidar de algo/alguien — to take care of something/somebody

    cuidar DE QUE + SUBJ: cuidarré de que no les falte nada — I'll make sure they have everything they need

    3.
    cuidarse v pron
    a) (refl) to take care of oneself, look after oneself

    cuidarse de + inf: se cuidó mucho or muy bien de (no) volver por ahí he took good care not to o he made very sure he didn't go back there; cuídate mucho de desobedecerme — you'd better do as I tell you

    cuidar se DE + INF: se cuidó bien de cerrar las ventanas — she made sure she shut the windows

    * * *
    = nurture, take + care of, tend, lubricate, nurse, give + care, groom.

    Ex: Studying the leisure reading preferences of teens can help library media specialists develop collections and programs that nurture a lifelong love of reading.

    Ex: The matter of bulk is well taken care of by improved microfilm.
    Ex: The flow of production dependent upon rows of clattering machines tended by tired children.
    Ex: The development of ABN has been lubricated by goodwill on the part of the parties involved.
    Ex: The author also evokes the story of the wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus in order to suggest the barbarity of Renaissance Rome.
    Ex: The traditional image of nurses, mostly women, in starched uniforms and white caps, giving care at the bedside in the hospital is out of date.
    Ex: Never has there been a greater interest in grooming pubic hair than there is today.
    * cuidar a Alguien hasta su recuperación = nurse + Nombre + back to health.
    * cuidar de = look after, care (about/for), watch out for.
    * cuidar de la retaguardia = hold + the fort, hold + the fortress.
    * cuidar del rebaño = tend + flock.
    * cuidar ovejas = herd + sheep.
    * cuidar rebaños = herding.
    * cuidarse de = beware (of/that).
    * familiar que cuida de los mayores = kinkeeper.
    * persona que se cuida la línea = weight watcher.

    * * *
    cuidar [A1 ]
    vt
    1 ‹juguetes/libros› to look after, take care of; ‹casa/plantas› to look after; ‹niño› to look after, take care of; ‹enfermo› to care for
    señora, le cuido el coche I'll take care of your car, Madam
    una señora les cuida a los niños a woman takes care of o looks after the children for them
    cuida a su padre enfermo he cares for o looks after his sick father
    no sabe cuidar el dinero he's no good at looking after his money
    hay que cuidar la salud you must look after your health
    cuídame la leche un momentito would you keep an eye on the milk for a moment?
    tienes que cuidar ese catarro you should look after that cold
    2 ‹estilo/detalles› to take care over
    debes cuidar la ortografía you must take care over your spelling
    cuida mucho todos los detalles she goes to a great deal of trouble over every little detail, she pays great attention to detail
    cuida mucho su apariencia she takes great care over her appearance
    ■ cuidar
    vi
    cuidar DE algo/algn to take care OF sth/sb
    cuidaré de él como si fuera mío I'll take care of it o look after it as if it were my own
    sabe cuidar de sí misma she knows how to take care of herself
    cuidar DE QUE + SUBJ:
    cuida de que no les falte nada make sure they have everything they need
    cuidaré de que todo marche bien I'll make sure everything goes smoothly
    1 ( refl) to take care of oneself, look after oneself
    ¡cuídate! take care!, look after yourself!
    no se cuidan bien they don't take care of o look after themselves properly
    ¡tú sí que sabes cuidarte! you certainly know how to look after yourself!, you don't live badly, do you?
    dejó de cuidarse she let herself go
    2 (procurar no) cuidarse DE + INF:
    se cuidan mucho de enfrentarse directamente they are very careful not to clash head-on
    se cuidó mucho or muy bien de (no) volver por ahí he took good care not to o he made very sure he didn't go back there
    cuídate mucho de andar diciendo cosas de mí you'd better not go round saying things about me
    * * *

     

    cuidar ( conjugate cuidar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹juguetes/plantas/casa› to look after;

    ‹ niño› to look after, take care of;
    ‹ enfermo› to care for, look after
    b) ‹estilo/apariencia› to take care over;


    verbo intransitivo cuidar de algo/algn to take care of sth/sb;

    cuidarse verbo pronominal ( refl) to take care of oneself, look after oneself;
    ¡cuídate! take care!;
    se cuidó bien de no volver por ahí he made very sure he didn't go back there;
    cuídate de decir algo que te comprometa take care not to say something which might compromise you
    cuidar verbo transitivo & verbo intransitivo (vigilar, atender) to care for, look after: cuida tu ortografía, mind your spelling cuida de que tu hermano vaya pronto a la cama, make sure that your brother goes to bed soon

    ' cuidar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    fregado
    - mirar
    - tratar
    - velar
    - criar
    - cuidado
    - enfermo
    - línea
    - vigilar
    English:
    attend
    - attend to
    - baby-sit
    - care
    - care for
    - grouse
    - house-sit
    - look after
    - mind
    - mother
    - notion
    - nurse
    - tend
    - watch
    - baby
    - eye
    - look
    - minister
    - nurture
    - scrimp
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [niño, animal, casa] to look after;
    [enfermo] to look after, to care for; [plantas] to look after, to tend
    2. [aspecto] to take care over;
    [ropa] to take care of, to look after;
    si no cuidas esos zapatos no te durarán if you don't look after those shoes they won't last;
    cuida mucho su aspecto físico he takes a lot of care over his appearance
    3. [detalles] to pay attention to;
    tienes que cuidar más la ortografía you must pay more attention to o take more care over your spelling
    ♦ vi
    cuidar de to look after;
    cuida de que no lo haga make sure she doesn't do it;
    cuida de que no se caiga (be) careful he doesn't fall
    * * *
    I v/t look after, take care of
    II v/i
    :
    cuidar de look after, take care of
    * * *
    cuidar vt
    1) : to take care of, to look after
    2) : to pay attention to
    cuidar vi
    1)
    cuidar de : to look after
    2)
    cuidar de que : to make sure that
    * * *
    cuidar vb to look after

    Spanish-English dictionary > cuidar

  • 3 Brunelleschi, Filippo

    [br]
    b. 1377 Florence, Italy
    d. 15 April 1446 Florence, Italy
    [br]
    Italian artist, craftsman and architect who introduced the Italian Renaissance style of classical architecture in the fifteenth century.
    [br]
    Brunelleschi was a true "Renaissance Man" in that he excelled in several disciplines, as did most artists of the Italian Renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He was a goldsmith and sculptor; fifteenth-century writers acknowledge him as the first to study and demonstrate the principles of perspective, and he clearly possessed a deep mathematical understanding of the principles of architectural structure.
    Brunelleschi's Foundling Hospital in Florence, begun in 1419, is accepted as the first Renaissance building, one whose architectural style is based upon a blend of the classical principles and decoration of Ancient Rome and those of the Tuscan Romanesque. Brunelleschi went on to design a number of important Renaissance structures in Florence, such as the basilicas of San Lorenzo and Santo Spirito, the Pazzi Chapel at Santa Croce, and the unfinished church of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
    However, the artistic and technical feat for which Brunelleschi is most famed is the completion of Florence Cathedral by constructing a dome above the octagonal drum which had been completed in 1412. The building of this dome presented what appeared to be at the time insuperable problems, which had caused previous cathedral architects to shy away from tackling it. The drum was nearly 140 ft (43 m) in diameter and its base was 180 ft (55 m) above floor level: no wooden centering was possible because no trees long enough to span the gap could be found, and even if they had been available, the weight of such a massive framework would have broken centering beneath. In addition, the drum had no external abutment, so the weight of the dome must exert excessive lateral thrust. Aesthetically, the ideal Renaissance dome, like the Roman dome before it (for example, the Pantheon) was a hemisphere, but in the case of the Florence Cathedral such a structure would have been unsafe, so Brunelleschi created a pointed dome that would create less thrust laterally. He constructed eight major ribs of stone and, between them, sixteen minor ones, using a light infilling. He constructed a double-shell dome, which was the first of this type but is a design that has been followed by nearly all major architects since this date (for example Michelangelo's Saint Peter's in Rome, and Wren's Saint Paul's in London). Further strength is given by a herringbone pattern of masonry and brick infilling, and by tension chains of massive blocks, fastened with iron and with iron chains above, girding the dome at three levels. A large lantern finally stops the 50 ft (15.25 m) diameter eye at the point of the dome. Construction of the Florence Cathedral dome was begun on 7 August 1420 and was completed to the base of the lantern sixteen years later. It survives as the peak of Brunelleschi's Renaissance achievement.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Peter Murray, 1963, The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance, Batsford, Ch. 2. Howard Saalman, 1980, Filippo Brunelleschi: The Cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore, Zwemmer.
    Piero Sanpaolesi, 1977, La Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore: Il Progetto: La Costruzione, Florence: Edam.
    Eugenio Battisti, 1981, Brunelleschi: The Complete Work, Thames and Hudson.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Brunelleschi, Filippo

  • 4 jugador

    m.
    1 player, contestant.
    2 gambler, punter.
    * * *
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 player
    2 (apostador) gambler
    \
    jugador,-a de Bolsa speculator
    * * *
    (f. - jugadora)
    noun
    * * *
    jugador, -a
    SM / F
    1) [de deporte, juegos de mesa] player

    jugador(a) de fútbol — footballer, football player

    jugador(a) de manos — † conjurer

    2) [de apuestas] gambler
    * * *
    - dora masculino, femenino (Dep) player; (en naipes, juegos de mesa) player; ( que juega habitualmente por dinero) gambler
    * * *
    = gambler, punter, gamester, gamer, player.
    Ex. This article reviews some of the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) sites for gambling and gambler.
    Ex. One of the radical proposals being considered is the separation of ordinary punters from compulsive gamblers.
    Ex. Renaissance gamesters soon embraced backgammon as their table game of choice.
    Ex. Johnson (2005) adds the additional argument that when playing such games, rather than reading the rulebook, gamers learn by doing.
    Ex. Here is the first game for up to six players on the same keyboard.
    ----
    * cromo de jugadores de béisbol = baseball card.
    * cromo de jugadores de fútbol = football card.
    * estampa de jugadores = sport(s) card.
    * jugador compulsivo = compulsive gambler.
    * jugador de apuestas = gambler.
    * jugador de bolos = bowler.
    * jugador de cricket = cricketer.
    * jugador de fútbol = football player, footballer, soccer player.
    * jugador de fútbol americano = footballer, football player.
    * jugador de golf = golfer.
    * jugador de grandes apuestas = high roller.
    * jugador de hockey = hockey player.
    * jugador de primera división = major league player.
    * jugador de rol = gamer.
    * jugador de tenis = tennis player.
    * jugador empedernido = compulsive gambler.
    * jugador extranjero = foreign player.
    * jugador inicial = starting player.
    * jugador obsesivo = compulsive gambler.
    * * *
    - dora masculino, femenino (Dep) player; (en naipes, juegos de mesa) player; ( que juega habitualmente por dinero) gambler
    * * *
    = gambler, punter, gamester, gamer, player.

    Ex: This article reviews some of the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) sites for gambling and gambler.

    Ex: One of the radical proposals being considered is the separation of ordinary punters from compulsive gamblers.
    Ex: Renaissance gamesters soon embraced backgammon as their table game of choice.
    Ex: Johnson (2005) adds the additional argument that when playing such games, rather than reading the rulebook, gamers learn by doing.
    Ex: Here is the first game for up to six players on the same keyboard.
    * cromo de jugadores de béisbol = baseball card.
    * cromo de jugadores de fútbol = football card.
    * estampa de jugadores = sport(s) card.
    * jugador compulsivo = compulsive gambler.
    * jugador de apuestas = gambler.
    * jugador de bolos = bowler.
    * jugador de cricket = cricketer.
    * jugador de fútbol = football player, footballer, soccer player.
    * jugador de fútbol americano = footballer, football player.
    * jugador de golf = golfer.
    * jugador de grandes apuestas = high roller.
    * jugador de hockey = hockey player.
    * jugador de primera división = major league player.
    * jugador de rol = gamer.
    * jugador de tenis = tennis player.
    * jugador empedernido = compulsive gambler.
    * jugador extranjero = foreign player.
    * jugador inicial = starting player.
    * jugador obsesivo = compulsive gambler.

    * * *
    masculine, feminine
    1 ( Dep) player
    2 (en naipes, juegos de mesa) player
    un jugador empedernido an inveterate gambler, a habitual gambler
    Compuestos:
    infielder
    ● jugador de videoconsolas, jugadora de videoconsolas
    masculine, feminine gamer
    * * *

    jugador
    ◊ - dora sustantivo masculino, femenino (Dep) player;


    (en naipes, juegos de mesa) player;
    ( que juega habitualmente por dinero) gambler
    jugador,-ora m, f
    1 player
    2 (persona con vicio de apostar) gambler
    ' jugador' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ala
    - alinear
    - alineación
    - batear
    - compulsiva
    - compulsivo
    - empedernida
    - empedernido
    - expulsar
    - jugadora
    - marcar
    - polivalente
    - sacar
    - sancionar
    - savia
    - suplente
    - swing
    - tahúr
    - temperamental
    - alentar
    - ceder
    - centro
    - defensa
    - fichaje
    - fuera
    - juego
    - línea
    - mano
    - medio
    - pelotero
    - prodigioso
    - reemplazo
    - relevar
    - suplir
    - suspender
    - traspasar
    - traspaso
    - vencedor
    - vencido
    - visera
    English:
    compulsive
    - confirmed
    - gambler
    - habitual
    - international
    - player
    - professional
    - seed
    - surrounding
    - tennis player
    - ball
    - bowler
    - cricketer
    - footballer
    - server
    * * *
    jugador, -ora
    ♦ adj
    1. [en deporte] playing
    2. [en casino, timba] gambling
    ♦ nm,f
    1. [en deporte] player;
    jugador de fútbol soccer player, Br footballer;
    jugador de baloncesto basketball player
    2. [en casino, timba] gambler
    * * *
    m, jugadora f player
    * * *
    1) : player
    2) : gambler
    * * *
    1. (en deportes) player
    2. (que apuesta) gambler

    Spanish-English dictionary > jugador

  • 5 pernicioso

    adj.
    1 noxious, destructive, harmful, baleful.
    2 pernicious, deleterious, fatal.
    * * *
    1 pernicious, harmful
    * * *
    ADJ pernicious tb Med; [influencia, sustancia] harmful; [insecto] injurious ( para to)
    [persona] wicked, evil
    * * *
    - sa adjetivo pernicious (frml)
    * * *
    = pernicious, baleful, unwholesome, insalubrious.
    Ex. Furthermore, children can be misled by group influences into reading truly pernicious material (hard core ponography, for example) and when this happens adults have a clear responsibility to step in and do something about it.
    Ex. He urged the young artists of England to break away from conventionality and the baleful influence of Renaissance art.
    Ex. The text raises the possibility that there might be something unwholesome in the Buddhist obsession with hell.
    Ex. Specific actions are those which are intended to reinforce the fight against specific medical conditions related to insalubrious living.
    * * *
    - sa adjetivo pernicious (frml)
    * * *
    = pernicious, baleful, unwholesome, insalubrious.

    Ex: Furthermore, children can be misled by group influences into reading truly pernicious material (hard core ponography, for example) and when this happens adults have a clear responsibility to step in and do something about it.

    Ex: He urged the young artists of England to break away from conventionality and the baleful influence of Renaissance art.
    Ex: The text raises the possibility that there might be something unwholesome in the Buddhist obsession with hell.
    Ex: Specific actions are those which are intended to reinforce the fight against specific medical conditions related to insalubrious living.

    * * *
    pernicious ( frml), destructive
    * * *

    pernicioso,-a adjetivo pernicious
    ' pernicioso' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    perniciosa
    - elemento
    English:
    pernicious
    - poisonous
    - harmful
    * * *
    pernicioso, -a adj
    damaging, harmful
    * * *
    adj harmful
    * * *
    pernicioso, -sa adj
    : pernicious, destructive

    Spanish-English dictionary > pernicioso

  • 6 Dichtung

    f
    1. nur Sg.; Koll. literature; (Lyrik) poetry
    2. (Gesamtwerk eines Dichters) work(s Pl.), writing(s Pl.); (Lyrik) poetry, poetic works Pl.
    3. (Gedicht) poem; (Prosawerk) work (of literature); sinfonische Dichtung symphonic poem
    4. fig.: Dichtung und Wahrheit fact and fiction, truth and fantasy; das ist doch reine Dichtung! umg. that’s a lot of old fairytales, he’s etc. made it all up
    —
    f
    1. nur Sg.; Handlung: sealing
    2. seal; (Packung) packing; (Manschette) gasket; (Unterlegscheibe) washer; (Fuge) joint; mit Kitt: luting, caulking; NAUT. caulking
    * * *
    die Dichtung
    fiction;
    (Dichtkunst) poetry; verse;
    (Literatur) literature;
    (Technik) gasket; packing; washer; seal
    * * *
    Dịch|tung I ['dɪçtʊŋ]
    f -, -en
    1) no pl (= Dichtkunst, Gesamtwerk) literature; (in Versform) poetry

    Dichtung und Wahrheit (Liter) — poetry and truth; (fig) fact and fantasy or fiction

    2) (= Dichtwerk) poem, poetic work; literary work
    II
    f -, -en (TECH)
    seal; (in Wasserhahn etc) washer; (AUT von Zylinder, Vergaser) gasket; (= das Abdichten) sealing
    * * *
    die
    1) (stories etc which tell of imagined, not real, characters and events (see also non-fiction): I prefer reading fiction to hearing about real events.) fiction
    2) (poetry, as opposed to prose: He expressed his ideas in verse.) verse
    * * *
    Dich·tung1
    <-, -en>
    [ˈdɪçtʊŋ]
    f
    1. kein pl (Dichtkunst) poetry
    die \Dichtung der Renaissance Renaissance poetry
    2. (episches Gedicht) epic poem
    \Dichtung und Wahrheit fact and fiction
    Dich·tung2
    <-, -en>
    [ˈdɪçtʊŋ]
    f seal, sealing; (Dichtring) washer; (von Ventildeckel) gasket; (von Zylinderkopf) head gasket
    * * *
    I
    die; Dichtung, Dichtungen
    1) o. Pl. sealing
    2) (dichtendes Teil) seal; (am Hahn usw.) washer; (am Vergaser, Zylinder usw.) gasket
    II
    die; Dichtung, Dichtungen
    1) literary work; work of literature; (in Versform) poetic work; poem; (fig. ugs.) fiction

    Dichtung und Wahrheit — fact and fiction; truth and fantasy

    2) o. Pl. (Dichtkunst) literature; (in Versform) poetry
    * * *
    Dichtung1 f
    1. nur sg; koll literature; (Lyrik) poetry
    2. (Gesamtwerk eines Dichters) work(s pl), writing(s pl); (Lyrik) poetry, poetic works pl
    3. (Gedicht) poem; (Prosawerk) work (of literature);
    sinfonische Dichtung symphonic poem
    4. fig:
    Dichtung und Wahrheit fact and fiction, truth and fantasy;
    das ist doch reine Dichtung! umg that’s a lot of old fairytales, he’s etc made it all up
    Dichtung2 f
    1. nur sg; Handlung: sealing
    2. seal; (Packung) packing; (Manschette) gasket; (Unterlegscheibe) washer; (Fuge) joint; mit Kitt: luting, caulking; SCHIFF caulking
    * * *
    I
    die; Dichtung, Dichtungen
    1) o. Pl. sealing
    2) (dichtendes Teil) seal; (am Hahn usw.) washer; (am Vergaser, Zylinder usw.) gasket
    II
    die; Dichtung, Dichtungen
    1) literary work; work of literature; (in Versform) poetic work; poem; (fig. ugs.) fiction

    Dichtung und Wahrheit — fact and fiction; truth and fantasy

    2) o. Pl. (Dichtkunst) literature; (in Versform) poetry
    * * *
    -en f.
    gasket n.
    literature n.
    packing n.
    poetry n.
    seal n.
    sealing gasket n.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Dichtung

  • 7 Adam, Robert

    [br]
    b. 3 July 1728 Kirkcaldy, Scotland
    d. 3 March 1792 London, England
    [br]
    Scottish architect, active mostly in England, who led the neo-classical movement between 1760 and 1790.
    [br]
    Robert Adam was a man of outstanding talent, immense energy dedicated to his profession, and of great originality, who utilized all sources of classical art from ancient Greece and Rome as well as from the Renaissance and Baroque eras in Italy. He was also a very practical exponent of neo-classicism and believed in using the latest techniques to produce fine craftsmanship.
    Of particular interest to him was stucco, the material needed for elegant, finely crafted ceiling and wall designs. Stucco, though the Italian word for plaster, refers architecturally to a specific form of the material. Known as Stucco duro (hard plaster), its use and composition dates from the days of ancient Rome. Giovanni da Udine, a pupil of Raphael, having discovered some fine stucco antico in the ruins of the Palace of Titus in Rome, carried out extensive research during the Italian Renaissance in order to discover its precise composition; it was a mixture of powdered crystalline limestone (travertine), river sand, water and powdered white marble. The marble produced an exceptionally hard stucco when set, thereby differentiating it from plaster-work, and was a material fine enough to make delicate relief and statuary work possible.
    In the 1770s Robert Adam's ceiling and wall designs were characterized by low-relief, delicate, classical forms. He and his brothers, who formed the firm of Adam Brothers, were interested in a stucco which would be especially fine grained and hard setting. A number of new products then appearing on the market were easier to handle than earlier ones. These included a stucco by Mr David Wark, patented in 1765, and another by a Swiss clergyman called Liardet in 1773; the Adam firm purchased both patents and obtained an Act of Parliament authorizing them to be the sole vendors and makers of this stucco, which they called "Adam's new invented patent stucco". More new versions appeared, among which was one by a Mr Johnson, who claimed it to be an improvement. The Adam Brothers, having paid a high price for their rights, took him to court. The case was decided in 1778 by Lord Mansfield, a fellow Scot and a patron (at Kenwood), who,
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the Society of Arts 1758. FRS 1761. Architect to the King's Works 1761.
    Bibliography
    1764, Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro.
    1773, Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam.
    Further Reading
    A.T.Bolton, 1922, The Architecture of Robert and James Adam, 1758–1794, 2 vols, Country Life.
    J.Fleming, 1962, Robert Adam and his Circle, Murray. J.Lees-Milne, 1947, The Age of Adam, Batsford.
    J.Rykwert and A.Rykwert, 1985, The Brothers Adam, Collins. D.Yarwood, 1970, Robert Adam, Dent.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Adam, Robert

  • 8 Beaumont, Huntingdon

    [br]
    b. c.1560 Coleorton (?), Leicestershire, England
    d. 1624 Nottingham, England
    [br]
    English speculator in coal-mining, constructor of the first surface railway in Britain.
    [br]
    Huntingdon Beaumont was a younger son of a landed family whose estates included coal-mines at Coleorton and Bedworth. From these, no doubt, originated his great expertise in coal-mining and mine management. His subsequent story is a complex one of speculation in coal mines: agreements, partnerships, and debts, and, in trying to extricate himself from the last, attempts to improve profitability, and ever-greater enterprises. He leased mines in 1601 at Wollaton, near Nottingham, and in 1603 at Strelley, which adjoins Wollaton but is further from Nottingham, where lay the market for coal. To reduce the transport cost of Strelley coal, Beaumont laid a wooden wagonway for two miles or so to Wollaton Lane End, the point at which the coal was customarily sold. In earlier times wooden railways had probably been used in mines, following practice on the European continent, but Beaumont's was the first on the surface in Britain. The market for coal in Nottingham being limited, Beaumont, with partners, attempted to send coal to London by water, but the difficult navigation of the Trent at this period made the venture uneconomic. With a view still to supplying London, c.1605 they took leases of mines near Blyth, north of Newcastle upon Tyne. Here too Beaumont built wagonways, to convey coal to the coast, but despite considerable expenditure the mines could not be made economic and Beaumont returned to Strelley. Although he worked the mine night and day, he was unable to meet the demands of his creditors, who eventually had him imprisoned for debt. He died in gaol.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.S.Smith, 1957, "Huntingdon Beaumont. Adventurer in coal mines", Renaissance \& Modern Studies 1; Smith, 1960, "England's first rails: a reconsideration", Renaissance
    \& Modern Studies 4, University of Nottingham (both are well-researched papers discussing Beaumont and his wagonways).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Beaumont, Huntingdon

  • 9 Vitruvius Pollio

    [br]
    b. early first century BC
    d. c. 25 BC
    [br]
    Roman writer on architecture and engineering subjects.
    [br]
    Nothing is known of Vitruvius apart from what can be gleaned from his only known work, the treatise De architectura. He seems to have been employed in some capacity by Julius Caesar and continued to serve under his heir, Octavianus, later Emperor Augustus, to whom he dedicated his book. It was written towards the end of his life, after Octavianus became undisputed ruler of the Empire by his victory at Actium in 31 BC, and was based partly on his own experience and partly on earlier, Hellenistic, writers.
    The De architectura is divided into ten books. The first seven books expound the general principles of architecture and the planning, design and construction of various types of building, public and domestic, including a consideration of techniques and materials. Book 7 deals with interior decoration, including stucco work and painting, while Book 8 treats water supply, from the location of sources to the transport of water by aqueducts, tunnels and pipes. Book 9, after a long and somewhat confused account of the astronomical theories of the day, describes various forms of clock and sundial. Finally, Book 10 deals with mechanical devices for handling building materials and raising and pumping water, for which Vitruvius draws on the earlier Greek authors Ctesibius and Hero.
    Although this may seem a motley assembly of subjects, to the Roman architect and builder it was a logical compendium of the subjects he was expected to know about. At the time, Vitruvius' rigid rules for the design of buildings such as temples seem to have had little influence, but his accounts of more practical matters of building materials and techniques were widely used. His illustrations to the original work were lost in antiquity, for no later manuscript includes them. Through the Middle Ages, manuscript copies were made in monastic scriptoria, although the architectural style in vogue had little relevance to those in Vitruvius: these came into their own with the Italian Renaissance. Alberti, writing the first great Renaissance treatise on architecture from 1452 to 1467, drew heavily on De architectura; those who sought to revive the styles of antiquity were bound to regard the only surviving text on the subject as authoritative. The appearance of the first printed edition in 1486 only served to extend its influence.
    During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Vitruvius was used as a handbook for constructing machines and instruments. For the modern historian of technology and architecture the work is a source of prime importance, although it must be remembered that the illustrations in the early printed editions are of contemporary reproductions of ancient devices using the techniques of the time, rather than authentic representations of ancient technology.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Of the several critical editions of De architectura there are the Teubner edition, 1899. ed. V.Rose, Leipzig; the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1962, ed. F.Granger, London: Heinemann, (with English trans. and notes); and the Collection Guillaume Budé with French trans. and full commentary, 10 vols, Paris (in progress).
    Further Reading
    Apart from the notes to the printed editions, see also: H.Plommer, 1973, Vitruvius and Later Roman Building Manuals, London. A.G.Drachmann, 1963, The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity Copenhagen and London.
    S.L.Gibbs, 1976, Greek and Roman Sundials, New Haven and London.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Vitruvius Pollio

  • 10 Boulle, André-Charles

    [br]
    b. 11 November 1642 Paris, France
    d. 29 February 1732 Paris, France
    [br]
    French cabinet-maker noted for his elaborate designs and high-quality technique in marquetry using brass and tortoiseshell.
    [br]
    As with the Renaissance artists and architects of fifteenth-and sixteenth-century Italy, Boulle worked as a young man in varied media, as a painter, engraver and metalworker an in mosaic techniques. It was in the 1660s that he turned more specifically to furniture and in the following decade, under the patronage of Louis XIV, that he became a leading ébéniste or cabinet-maker, In 1672 the King's Controller-General, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, recommended Boulle as an outstanding cabinet-maker and he was appointed ébéniste du roi. From then he spent the rest of his life working in the royal palaces, notably the Louvre and Versailles, and also carried out commissions for the French aristocracy and from abroad, particularly Spain and Germany.
    Before the advent of Boulle, the quality furniture made for the French court and aristocracy had come from foreign craftsmen, particularly Domenico Cucci of Italy and Pierre Colle of the Low Countries. Boulle made his name as their equal in his development of new forms of furniture such as his bureaux and commodes, the immense variety of his designs and their architectural quality, the beauty of his sculptural, gilded mounts, and the development of his elaborate marquetry. He was a leading exponent of the contemporary styles, which meant the elaborately rich baroque forms in the time of Louis XIV and the more delicate rococo elegance in that of Louis XV. The technique to which Boulle gave his name (sometimes referred to in its German spelling of Bühl) incorporated a rich variety of veneering materials into his designs: in particular, he used tortoiseshell and brass with ebony. Even greater richness was created with the introduction of an engraved design upon the brass surfaces. Further delicate elaboration derived from the use of paired panels of decoration to be used in reverse form in one piece, or two matching pieces, of furniture. In one panel, designated as première partie, the marquetry took the form of brass upon tortoiseshell, while in the other (contre-partie) the tortoiseshell was set into the brass background.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Fleming and H.Honour, 1977, The Penguin Dictionary of Decorative Arts: Allen Lane, pp. 107–9.
    1982, The History of Furniture: Orbis (contains many references to Boulle).
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Boulle, André-Charles

  • 11 Ding Huan (Ting Huan)

    [br]
    fl. c.100 AD China
    [br]
    Chinese inventor of various devices.
    [br]
    Ding Huan invented a form of suspension rediscovered by the French Renaissance mathematician Jerome Cardan, although a reference in the "Ode to beautiful women" (c.740) indicates that the device was probably in existence earlier (see vol. IV.2, p. 233 in the reference given below). Ding Huan also invented the zoetrope lamp (c.180), which had a thin canopy bearing vanes at the top that were caused to rotate by an ascending current of warm air from the lamp. The canopy bore images which, if the canopy were rotated fast enough, gave the impression of movement, as in early forerunners of the cinematograph. In the Xi Jing Za Ji (Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital), it is recorded that Ding Huan devised an air-conditioning fan that consisted of a set of seven fans, each 10 ft (3 m) in diameter, connected so that they could be worked together by one person. The device could cool a hall so that "people would even begin to shiver".
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Needham, 1972–4, Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, vols IV. 1, pp. 123, 125; IV. 2, pp. 150–1, 233, 236; V. 2, p. 133.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Ding Huan (Ting Huan)

  • 12 Hero of Alexandria

    [br]
    fl. c.62 AD Alexandria
    [br]
    Alexandrian mathematician and mechanician.
    [br]
    Nothing is known of Hero, or Heron, apart from what can be gleaned from the books he wrote. Their scope and style suggest that he was a teacher at the museum or the university of Alexandria, writing textbooks for his students. The longest book, and the one with the greatest technological interest, is Pneumatics. Some of its material is derived from the works of the earlier writers Ctesibius of Alexandria and Philo of Byzantium, but many of the devices described were invented by Hero himself. The introduction recognizes that the air is a body and demonstrates the effects of air pressure, as when air must be allowed to escape from a closed vessel before water can enter. There follow clear descriptions of a variety of mechanical contrivances depending on the effects of either air pressure or heated gases. Most of the devices seem trivial, but such toys or gadgets were popular at the time and Hero is concerned to show how they work. Inventions with a more serious purpose are a fire pump and a water organ. One celebrated gadget is a sphere that is set spinning by jets of steam—an early illustration of the reaction principle on which modern jet propulsion depends.
    M echanics, known only in an Arabic version, is a textbook expounding the theory and practical skills required by the architect. It deals with a variety of questions of mechanics, such as the statics of a horizontal beam resting on vertical posts, the theory of the centre of gravity and equilibrium, largely derived from Archimedes, and the five ways of applying a relatively small force to exert a much larger one: the lever, winch, pulley, wedge and screw. Practical devices described include sledges for transporting heavy loads, cranes and a screw cutter.
    Hero's Dioptra describes instruments used in surveying, together with an odometer or device to indicate the distance travelled by a wheeled vehicle. Catoptrics, known only in Latin, deals with the principles of mirrors, plane and curved, enunciating that the angle of incidence is equal to that of reflection. Automata describes two forms of puppet theatre, operated by strings and drums driven by a falling lead weight attached to a rope wound round an axle. Hero's mathematical work lies in the tradition of practical mathematics stretching from the Babylonians through Islam to Renaissance Europe. It is seen most clearly in his Metrica, a treatise on mensuration.
    Of all his works, Pneumatics was the best known and most influential. It was one of the works of Greek science and technology assimilated by the Arabs, notably Banu Musa ibn Shakir, and was transmitted to medieval Western Europe.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    All Hero's works have been printed with a German translation in Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnia, 1899–1914, 5 vols, Leipzig. The book on pneumatics has been published as The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria, 1851, trans. and ed. Bennet Wood-croft, London (facs. repr. 1971, introd. Marie Boas Hall, London and New York).
    Further Reading
    A.G.Drachmann, 1948, "Ktesibios, Philon and Heron: A Study in Ancient Pneumatics", Acta Hist. Sci. Nat. Med. 4, Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
    T.L.Heath, 1921, A History of Greek Mathematics, Oxford (still useful for his mathematical work).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Hero of Alexandria

  • 13 Mansart, Nicolas François

    [br]
    b. 23 January 1598 Paris, France
    d. 23 September 1666 Paris, France
    [br]
    French architect believed by many historians to be the greatest French architect of all time.
    [br]
    Mansart was a classical architect who designed in High Renaissance style in France. Chief architect to Louis XIII, he was responsible for a number of fine châteaux and hôtels such as the Château de Maisons (1642–51) near Paris and the Hôtel Carnavalet (1660) in Paris. He was also the architect of the magnificent Paris church of Val de Grâce (begun in 1645).
    The mansard roof, which has two different slopes of pitch, one steeper than the other, was named after Mansart (with a small change of spelling for euphony). It was a type of roof that was very popular in France from the early seventeenth century onwards and was revived under Napoleon III in the nineteenth century. However, although Mansart popularized this style of roof, he did not invent it; indeed, it was used in earlier works by both Pierre Lescot and Jacques Lemercier.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.Blomfield, 1911, A History of French Architecture, Vol II, Bell (the standard work). A.Braham and P.Smith, 1974, François Mansart, Zwemmer.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Mansart, Nicolas François

  • 14 Porta, Giovanni Battista (Giambattista) della

    [br]
    b. between 3 October and 15 November 1535 Vico Equense, near Naples, Italy
    d. 4 February 1615 Naples, Italy
    [br]
    Italian natural philosopher who published many scientific books, one of which covered ideas for the use of steam.
    [br]
    Giambattista della Porta spent most of his life in Naples, where some time before 1580 he established the Accademia dei Segreti, which met at his house. In 1611 he was enrolled among the Oziosi in Naples, then the most renowned literary academy. He was examined by the Inquisition, which, although he had become a lay brother of the Jesuits by 1585, banned all further publication of his books between 1592 and 1598.
    His first book, the Magiae Naturalis, which covered the secrets of nature, was published in 1558. He had been collecting material for it since the age of 15 and he saw that science should not merely represent theory and contemplation but must arrive at practical and experimental expression. In this work he described the hardening of files and pieces of armour on quite a large scale, and it included the best sixteenth-century description of heat treatment for hardening steel. In the 1589 edition of this work he covered ways of improving vision at a distance with concave and convex lenses; although he may have constructed a compound microscope, the history of this instrument effectively begins with Galileo. His theoretical and practical work on lenses paved the way for the telescope and he also explored the properties of parabolic mirrors.
    In 1563 he published a treatise on cryptography, De Furtivis Liter arum Notis, which he followed in 1566 with another on memory and mnemonic devices, Arte del Ricordare. In 1584 and 1585 he published treatises on horticulture and agriculture based on careful study and practice; in 1586 he published De Humana Physiognomonia, on human physiognomy, and in 1588 a treatise on the physiognomy of plants. In 1593 he published his De Refractione but, probably because of the ban by the Inquisition, no more were produced until the Spiritali in 1601 and his translation of Ptolemy's Almagest in 1605. In 1608 two new works appeared: a short treatise on military fortifications; and the De Distillatione. There was an important work on meteorology in 1610. In 1601 he described a device similar to Hero's mechanisms which opened temple doors, only Porta used steam pressure instead of air to force the water out of its box or container, up a pipe to where it emptied out into a higher container. Under the lower box there was a small steam boiler heated by a fire. He may also have been the first person to realize that condensed steam would form a vacuum, for there is a description of another piece of apparatus where water is drawn up into a container at the top of a long pipe. The container was first filled with steam so that, when cooled, a vacuum would be formed and water drawn up into it. These are the principles on which Thomas Savery's later steam-engine worked.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 1975, Vol. XI, New York: C.Scribner's Sons (contains a full biography).
    H.W.Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (contains an account of his contributions to the early development of the steam-engine).
    C.Singer (ed.), 1957, A History of Technology, Vol. III, Oxford University Press (contains accounts of some of his other discoveries).
    I.Asimov (ed.), 1982, Biographical Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology, 2nd edn., New York: Doubleday.
    G.Sarton, 1957, Six wings: Men of Science in the Renaissance, London: Bodley Head, pp. 85–8.
    RLH / IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Porta, Giovanni Battista (Giambattista) della

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