process+setting

editing; setting (process)

maintenance (upkeep)

   New business structure introduced in 2009, to encourage entrepreneurship in France. The system has proved even more successful than predicted, and hundreds of thousands of people signed up for the new status in the first six months. The great attraction and innovation of this system is its simplicity. In the past, setting up as a sole trader or self-employed in France was a very complex formality, involving registration with at least three different organisations (depending on the nature of the work), for tax, social security and health service benefits; it was also fiscally heavy, with high contributions to the various "caisses", bearing no relation at all to actual earnings during the first two years.

   The new "statut de l'autoentrepreneur" has done away with all this; signing up is a simple process, done on line, and those choosing this status have one single periodic payment to make, covering all their social security and health contribution charges, and even income tax. Payments are strictly based on actual earnings, so a self employed person who earned only 10 Euros in a poor month now pays his social security charge as a proportion of the sum actually earned. There are three contribution rates, depending on the nature of the activity, sales, services or professional consultancy.

   Anyone can sign up for this new status, which covers not only the self employed, but also those who have a job with an employer, but also wish to undertake entrepreneurial activities as a sideline.

   A secondary advantage of this new system has been to bring into the system people who previously did the odd job on the side here and there, but never declared these earnings, on account of the complexity and expense of the previous systems..

cīvīlis, e, adj. [civis].

Of or pertaining to citizens, civil, civic (class. in prose and poetry, and very freq.): sanguine civili rem conflant, by the blood of citizens, * Lucr. 3, 70; Cic. Fam. 15, 15, 1:

conjuratio,

id. ib. 5, 12, 2:

bellum,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1; id. Imp. Pomp. 10, 28:

bella,

Hor. Epod. 16, 1; Luc. 1, 1:

genus belli,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1; Sall. C. 47, 2; Quint. 12, 1, 16; Flor. 3, 22, 10; 3, 23, 7:

facinus,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1.—So De Bello Civili, the title of a portion of the Commentaries of Julius Cæsar, Flor. 4, 2, 4:

discordia,

Sall. C. 5, 2:

dissensio,

id. J. 41 fin.:

discidii specie,

Tac. A. 14, 60:

irae,

id. ib. 1, 43:

acies,

Ov. M. 7, 142:

arma,

civil war, Cic. Div. 2, 2, 6; Tac. A. 1, 9:

aestus,

Hor. Ep. 2, 2, 47:

Mars,

Ov. H. 6, 35:

busta,

Prop. 2, 1, 27:

victoria,

Nep. Epam. 10, 3; Sall. J. 95, 4; Tac. H. 4, 38 fin.:

praeda,

id. ib. 3, 15 et saep.:

mos consuetudoque,

Cic. Off. 1, 41,148; cf.

just before: instituta civilia: conciliatio et societas,

id. N. D. 2, 31, 78:

facinus,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1:

clamor,

Liv. 3, 28, 4; cf.

robur,

id. 28, 44, 5:

curae,

Hor. C. 3, 8, 17:

quercus = corona civica (v. civicus, I.),

Verg. A. 6, 772: civilis dies, the civil day ( from midnight to midnight; opp. to the naturalis dies, from the rising to the setting of the sun), Varr. R. R. 1, 28, 1; Plin. 2, 77, 79, § 188; Macr. S. 1, 3:

amor (opp. to naturalis),

between citizens, Gell. 12, 1, 23.—

Esp.: jus civile.

In gen., private rights, the law, as it protects citizens in their status, property, etc.:

jus civile est aequitas constituta iis, qui ejusdem civitatis sunt, ad res suas obtinendas,

Cic. Top. 2, 9:

sit ergo in jure civili finis hic: legitimae atque usitatae in rebus causisque civium aequabilitatis conservatio,

id. de Or. 1, 42, 188:

qui jus civile contemnendum putat, is vincula revellit judiciorum, etc.,

id. Caecin. 25, 70; id. Off. 3, 17, 69; id. Balb. 11, 28; Gai Inst. 1, 1; Just. Inst. 1, 2, 1 sq.;

opp. jus naturale: quodam tempore homines nondum neque naturali neque civili jure descripto fusi, etc.,

Cic. Sest. 42, 91.—

The body of Roman law relating to private rights, the Civil Law:

ut si quis dicat jus civile id esse, quod in legibus, senatūs consultis, rebus judicatis, juris peritorum auctoritate, edictis magistratuum, more, aequitate consistat,

Cic. Top. 5, 28:

hoc civile (jus) quod dicimus (opp. causa universi juris ac legum),

id. Leg. 1, 5, 17:

de jure civili si quis novi quid instituit,

id. Verr. 2, 1, 42, § 109;

opp. jus nationum,

id. Div in Caecil. 5, 18;

opp. jus praetorium, the precedents of decisions by the prætor: nam quod agas mecum ex jure civili ac praetorio non habes,

id. Caecin. 12, 34; 2, 4; cf. Dig. 1, 1, 7 pr. and § 1.—

In narrower sense, the code of procedure, the forms of process in the Roman law:

civile jus, repositum in penetralibus pontificum, evulgavit (Licinius),

Liv. 9, 46, 5 Weissenb. ad loc.:

jus civile per multa saecula inter sacra caerimoniasque deorum abditum, Cn. Flavius vulgavit,

Val. Max. 2, 5, 2; cf. Dig. 1, 2, 2, § 5 sqq.; plur.:

inteream si... novi civilia jura,

Hor. S. 1, 9, 39.—

Relating to public or political life, political, public, state-:

scientia,

politics, political science, Cic. Inv. 1, 5, 6; Quint. 2, 15, 33:

quaestiones,

id. 2, 15, 36:

officia,

id. 2, 15, 36, and 2, 4, 27:

civilium rerum peritus,

Tac. H. 2, 5:

mersor civilibus undis,

Hor. Ep. 1, 1, 16: vir, a statesman, politikos, Quint. prooem. § 10; 11, 10, 15; 12, 2, 7; 12, 2, 21; 11, 1, 35.—

Esp. civil, opp. military (first in Livy):

is gravis annis non militaribus solum sed civilibus quoque abscesserat muneribus,

Liv. 9, 3, 5; cf.:

civilis res haud magnopere obeuntem bella excitabant,

id. 6, 22, 7.—

Trop. (cf. popularis, and the Gr. koinos), demeaning one ' s self as a citizen; hence of distinguished persons, courteous, polite, civil, affable, urbane (so not before the Aug. per.; esp. freq. in Suet.;

in Quint. only once): quid enim civilius illo?

Ov. Tr. 4, 4, 13:

sermo,

Liv. 6, 40, 15:

animus,

id. 45, 32, 5; Tac. A. 1, 72; Suet. Caes. 75; id. Claud. 1; id. Dom. 12; cf. id. Calig. 3; id. Vesp. 12:

parumque id non civile modo sed humanum etiam visum,

unbecoming a private citizen, Liv. 5, 23, 5:

et humano ingressu,

Quint. 3, 8, 59 Spald.:

incessu,

Plin. Pan. 83, 7:

civile ingenium, mira comitas,

Tac. A. 1, 33; cf. id. ib. 2, 82: arma, id. H. 4, 3:

civile rebatur, misceri voluptatibus vulgi,

id. A. 1, 54; cf. id. ib. 2, 34; 3, 22; Plin. Pan. 78, 4; 87, 1:

civilis circa amicos,

Eutr. 7, 13:

in cunctos,

id. 10, 16.— Sup., Eutr. 8, 1; Spart. Had. 20, 1.—As subst.: cīvīle, is, n., courtesy:

si quicquam in vobis non dico civilis sed humani esset,

Liv. 5, 3, 9.—Hence, adv.: cīvīlĭter.

(Acc. to I.) Citizen-like: vivere, Cic. ap. Lact. 3, 14: certare, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 14, 3; Liv. 38, 56, 9; 33, 46, 3; Juv. 5, 112; Gell. praef. § 13.—

In judicial language, civilly (opp. criminally):

agere,

Dig. 47, 2, 92; 11, 6, 1; 47, 10, 37.—

(Acc. to 2.) As becomes a citizen, courteously, kindly, Ov. M. 12, 583; id. Tr. 3, 8, 41; Tac. A. 3, 76; 4, 21; id. H. 2, 91.— Comp.:

civilius,

Plin. Pan. 29, 2; App. M. 9, p. 236, 10.— Sup.:

civilissime,

Eutr. 7, 8.

Cīvīlis, is, m., a proper name, e. g. Julius Civilis, chief of the Batavi, Tac. H. 4, 13 sq.; abl. Civile, id. ib. 4, 35.

cīvīlis, e, adj. [civis].

Of or pertaining to citizens, civil, civic (class. in prose and poetry, and very freq.): sanguine civili rem conflant, by the blood of citizens, * Lucr. 3, 70; Cic. Fam. 15, 15, 1:

conjuratio,

id. ib. 5, 12, 2:

bellum,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1; id. Imp. Pomp. 10, 28:

bella,

Hor. Epod. 16, 1; Luc. 1, 1:

genus belli,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1; Sall. C. 47, 2; Quint. 12, 1, 16; Flor. 3, 22, 10; 3, 23, 7:

facinus,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1.—So De Bello Civili, the title of a portion of the Commentaries of Julius Cæsar, Flor. 4, 2, 4:

discordia,

Sall. C. 5, 2:

dissensio,

id. J. 41 fin.:

discidii specie,

Tac. A. 14, 60:

irae,

id. ib. 1, 43:

acies,

Ov. M. 7, 142:

arma,

civil war, Cic. Div. 2, 2, 6; Tac. A. 1, 9:

aestus,

Hor. Ep. 2, 2, 47:

Mars,

Ov. H. 6, 35:

busta,

Prop. 2, 1, 27:

victoria,

Nep. Epam. 10, 3; Sall. J. 95, 4; Tac. H. 4, 38 fin.:

praeda,

id. ib. 3, 15 et saep.:

mos consuetudoque,

Cic. Off. 1, 41,148; cf.

just before: instituta civilia: conciliatio et societas,

id. N. D. 2, 31, 78:

facinus,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1:

clamor,

Liv. 3, 28, 4; cf.

robur,

id. 28, 44, 5:

curae,

Hor. C. 3, 8, 17:

quercus = corona civica (v. civicus, I.),

Verg. A. 6, 772: civilis dies, the civil day ( from midnight to midnight; opp. to the naturalis dies, from the rising to the setting of the sun), Varr. R. R. 1, 28, 1; Plin. 2, 77, 79, § 188; Macr. S. 1, 3:

amor (opp. to naturalis),

between citizens, Gell. 12, 1, 23.—

Esp.: jus civile.

In gen., private rights, the law, as it protects citizens in their status, property, etc.:

jus civile est aequitas constituta iis, qui ejusdem civitatis sunt, ad res suas obtinendas,

Cic. Top. 2, 9:

sit ergo in jure civili finis hic: legitimae atque usitatae in rebus causisque civium aequabilitatis conservatio,

id. de Or. 1, 42, 188:

qui jus civile contemnendum putat, is vincula revellit judiciorum, etc.,

id. Caecin. 25, 70; id. Off. 3, 17, 69; id. Balb. 11, 28; Gai Inst. 1, 1; Just. Inst. 1, 2, 1 sq.;

opp. jus naturale: quodam tempore homines nondum neque naturali neque civili jure descripto fusi, etc.,

Cic. Sest. 42, 91.—

The body of Roman law relating to private rights, the Civil Law:

ut si quis dicat jus civile id esse, quod in legibus, senatūs consultis, rebus judicatis, juris peritorum auctoritate, edictis magistratuum, more, aequitate consistat,

Cic. Top. 5, 28:

hoc civile (jus) quod dicimus (opp. causa universi juris ac legum),

id. Leg. 1, 5, 17:

de jure civili si quis novi quid instituit,

id. Verr. 2, 1, 42, § 109;

opp. jus nationum,

id. Div in Caecil. 5, 18;

opp. jus praetorium, the precedents of decisions by the prætor: nam quod agas mecum ex jure civili ac praetorio non habes,

id. Caecin. 12, 34; 2, 4; cf. Dig. 1, 1, 7 pr. and § 1.—

In narrower sense, the code of procedure, the forms of process in the Roman law:

civile jus, repositum in penetralibus pontificum, evulgavit (Licinius),

Liv. 9, 46, 5 Weissenb. ad loc.:

jus civile per multa saecula inter sacra caerimoniasque deorum abditum, Cn. Flavius vulgavit,

Val. Max. 2, 5, 2; cf. Dig. 1, 2, 2, § 5 sqq.; plur.:

inteream si... novi civilia jura,

Hor. S. 1, 9, 39.—

Relating to public or political life, political, public, state-:

scientia,

politics, political science, Cic. Inv. 1, 5, 6; Quint. 2, 15, 33:

quaestiones,

id. 2, 15, 36:

officia,

id. 2, 15, 36, and 2, 4, 27:

civilium rerum peritus,

Tac. H. 2, 5:

mersor civilibus undis,

Hor. Ep. 1, 1, 16: vir, a statesman, politikos, Quint. prooem. § 10; 11, 10, 15; 12, 2, 7; 12, 2, 21; 11, 1, 35.—

Esp. civil, opp. military (first in Livy):

is gravis annis non militaribus solum sed civilibus quoque abscesserat muneribus,

Liv. 9, 3, 5; cf.:

civilis res haud magnopere obeuntem bella excitabant,

id. 6, 22, 7.—

Trop. (cf. popularis, and the Gr. koinos), demeaning one ' s self as a citizen; hence of distinguished persons, courteous, polite, civil, affable, urbane (so not before the Aug. per.; esp. freq. in Suet.;

in Quint. only once): quid enim civilius illo?

Ov. Tr. 4, 4, 13:

sermo,

Liv. 6, 40, 15:

animus,

id. 45, 32, 5; Tac. A. 1, 72; Suet. Caes. 75; id. Claud. 1; id. Dom. 12; cf. id. Calig. 3; id. Vesp. 12:

parumque id non civile modo sed humanum etiam visum,

unbecoming a private citizen, Liv. 5, 23, 5:

et humano ingressu,

Quint. 3, 8, 59 Spald.:

incessu,

Plin. Pan. 83, 7:

civile ingenium, mira comitas,

Tac. A. 1, 33; cf. id. ib. 2, 82: arma, id. H. 4, 3:

civile rebatur, misceri voluptatibus vulgi,

id. A. 1, 54; cf. id. ib. 2, 34; 3, 22; Plin. Pan. 78, 4; 87, 1:

civilis circa amicos,

Eutr. 7, 13:

in cunctos,

id. 10, 16.— Sup., Eutr. 8, 1; Spart. Had. 20, 1.—As subst.: cīvīle, is, n., courtesy:

si quicquam in vobis non dico civilis sed humani esset,

Liv. 5, 3, 9.—Hence, adv.: cīvīlĭter.

(Acc. to I.) Citizen-like: vivere, Cic. ap. Lact. 3, 14: certare, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 14, 3; Liv. 38, 56, 9; 33, 46, 3; Juv. 5, 112; Gell. praef. § 13.—

In judicial language, civilly (opp. criminally):

agere,

Dig. 47, 2, 92; 11, 6, 1; 47, 10, 37.—

(Acc. to 2.) As becomes a citizen, courteously, kindly, Ov. M. 12, 583; id. Tr. 3, 8, 41; Tac. A. 3, 76; 4, 21; id. H. 2, 91.— Comp.:

civilius,

Plin. Pan. 29, 2; App. M. 9, p. 236, 10.— Sup.:

civilissime,

Eutr. 7, 8.

Cīvīlis, is, m., a proper name, e. g. Julius Civilis, chief of the Batavi, Tac. H. 4, 13 sq.; abl. Civile, id. ib. 4, 35.

cīvīlis, e, adj. [civis].

Of or pertaining to citizens, civil, civic (class. in prose and poetry, and very freq.): sanguine civili rem conflant, by the blood of citizens, * Lucr. 3, 70; Cic. Fam. 15, 15, 1:

conjuratio,

id. ib. 5, 12, 2:

bellum,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1; id. Imp. Pomp. 10, 28:

bella,

Hor. Epod. 16, 1; Luc. 1, 1:

genus belli,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1; Sall. C. 47, 2; Quint. 12, 1, 16; Flor. 3, 22, 10; 3, 23, 7:

facinus,

Cic. Att. 7, 13, 1.—So De Bello Civili, the title of a portion of the Commentaries of Julius Cæsar, Flor. 4, 2, 4:

discordia,

Sall. C. 5, 2:

dissensio,

id. J. 41 fin.:

discidii specie,

Tac. A. 14, 60:

irae,

id. ib. 1, 43:

acies,

Ov. M. 7, 142:

arma,

civil war, Cic. Div. 2, 2, 6; Tac. A. 1, 9:

aestus,

Hor. Ep. 2, 2, 47:

Mars,

Ov. H. 6, 35:

busta,

Prop. 2, 1, 27:

victoria,

Nep. Epam. 10, 3; Sall. J. 95, 4; Tac. H. 4, 38 fin.:

praeda,

id. ib. 3, 15 et saep.:

mos consuetudoque,

Cic. Off. 1, 41,148; cf.

just before: instituta civilia: conciliatio et societas,

id. N. D. 2, 31, 78:

facinus,

id. Att. 7, 13, 1:

clamor,

Liv. 3, 28, 4; cf.

robur,

id. 28, 44, 5:

curae,

Hor. C. 3, 8, 17:

quercus = corona civica (v. civicus, I.),

Verg. A. 6, 772: civilis dies, the civil day ( from midnight to midnight; opp. to the naturalis dies, from the rising to the setting of the sun), Varr. R. R. 1, 28, 1; Plin. 2, 77, 79, § 188; Macr. S. 1, 3:

amor (opp. to naturalis),

between citizens, Gell. 12, 1, 23.—

Esp.: jus civile.

In gen., private rights, the law, as it protects citizens in their status, property, etc.:

jus civile est aequitas constituta iis, qui ejusdem civitatis sunt, ad res suas obtinendas,

Cic. Top. 2, 9:

sit ergo in jure civili finis hic: legitimae atque usitatae in rebus causisque civium aequabilitatis conservatio,

id. de Or. 1, 42, 188:

qui jus civile contemnendum putat, is vincula revellit judiciorum, etc.,

id. Caecin. 25, 70; id. Off. 3, 17, 69; id. Balb. 11, 28; Gai Inst. 1, 1; Just. Inst. 1, 2, 1 sq.;

opp. jus naturale: quodam tempore homines nondum neque naturali neque civili jure descripto fusi, etc.,

Cic. Sest. 42, 91.—

The body of Roman law relating to private rights, the Civil Law:

ut si quis dicat jus civile id esse, quod in legibus, senatūs consultis, rebus judicatis, juris peritorum auctoritate, edictis magistratuum, more, aequitate consistat,

Cic. Top. 5, 28:

hoc civile (jus) quod dicimus (opp. causa universi juris ac legum),

id. Leg. 1, 5, 17:

de jure civili si quis novi quid instituit,

id. Verr. 2, 1, 42, § 109;

opp. jus nationum,

id. Div in Caecil. 5, 18;

opp. jus praetorium, the precedents of decisions by the prætor: nam quod agas mecum ex jure civili ac praetorio non habes,

id. Caecin. 12, 34; 2, 4; cf. Dig. 1, 1, 7 pr. and § 1.—

In narrower sense, the code of procedure, the forms of process in the Roman law:

civile jus, repositum in penetralibus pontificum, evulgavit (Licinius),

Liv. 9, 46, 5 Weissenb. ad loc.:

jus civile per multa saecula inter sacra caerimoniasque deorum abditum, Cn. Flavius vulgavit,

Val. Max. 2, 5, 2; cf. Dig. 1, 2, 2, § 5 sqq.; plur.:

inteream si... novi civilia jura,

Hor. S. 1, 9, 39.—

Relating to public or political life, political, public, state-:

scientia,

politics, political science, Cic. Inv. 1, 5, 6; Quint. 2, 15, 33:

quaestiones,

id. 2, 15, 36:

officia,

id. 2, 15, 36, and 2, 4, 27:

civilium rerum peritus,

Tac. H. 2, 5:

mersor civilibus undis,

Hor. Ep. 1, 1, 16: vir, a statesman, politikos, Quint. prooem. § 10; 11, 10, 15; 12, 2, 7; 12, 2, 21; 11, 1, 35.—

Esp. civil, opp. military (first in Livy):

is gravis annis non militaribus solum sed civilibus quoque abscesserat muneribus,

Liv. 9, 3, 5; cf.:

civilis res haud magnopere obeuntem bella excitabant,

id. 6, 22, 7.—

Trop. (cf. popularis, and the Gr. koinos), demeaning one ' s self as a citizen; hence of distinguished persons, courteous, polite, civil, affable, urbane (so not before the Aug. per.; esp. freq. in Suet.;

in Quint. only once): quid enim civilius illo?

Ov. Tr. 4, 4, 13:

sermo,

Liv. 6, 40, 15:

animus,

id. 45, 32, 5; Tac. A. 1, 72; Suet. Caes. 75; id. Claud. 1; id. Dom. 12; cf. id. Calig. 3; id. Vesp. 12:

parumque id non civile modo sed humanum etiam visum,

unbecoming a private citizen, Liv. 5, 23, 5:

et humano ingressu,

Quint. 3, 8, 59 Spald.:

incessu,

Plin. Pan. 83, 7:

civile ingenium, mira comitas,

Tac. A. 1, 33; cf. id. ib. 2, 82: arma, id. H. 4, 3:

civile rebatur, misceri voluptatibus vulgi,

id. A. 1, 54; cf. id. ib. 2, 34; 3, 22; Plin. Pan. 78, 4; 87, 1:

civilis circa amicos,

Eutr. 7, 13:

in cunctos,

id. 10, 16.— Sup., Eutr. 8, 1; Spart. Had. 20, 1.—As subst.: cīvīle, is, n., courtesy:

si quicquam in vobis non dico civilis sed humani esset,

Liv. 5, 3, 9.—Hence, adv.: cīvīlĭter.

(Acc. to I.) Citizen-like: vivere, Cic. ap. Lact. 3, 14: certare, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 14, 3; Liv. 38, 56, 9; 33, 46, 3; Juv. 5, 112; Gell. praef. § 13.—

In judicial language, civilly (opp. criminally):

agere,

Dig. 47, 2, 92; 11, 6, 1; 47, 10, 37.—

(Acc. to 2.) As becomes a citizen, courteously, kindly, Ov. M. 12, 583; id. Tr. 3, 8, 41; Tac. A. 3, 76; 4, 21; id. H. 2, 91.— Comp.:

civilius,

Plin. Pan. 29, 2; App. M. 9, p. 236, 10.— Sup.:

civilissime,

Eutr. 7, 8.

Cīvīlis, is, m., a proper name, e. g. Julius Civilis, chief of the Batavi, Tac. H. 4, 13 sq.; abl. Civile, id. ib. 4, 35.

   Portugal's world's fair, held from May to October 1998, set in Lisbon. Designed to commemorate and celebrate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's 1498 discovery of an all-water route to India, this was an ambitious undertaking for a small country with a developing economy. The setting of the exposition was remote eastern Lisbon, along the banks of the Tagus estuary. To facilitate logistics, Portugal opened a new Metro station (Oriente) for the Expo and the new Vasco da Gama Bridge, just northeast of the site. More than 10 million visitors, many of them from abroad but a large proportion from Spain and Portugal, arrived at the site by Metro, bus, taxi, or car and were guided by signs in three languages: Portuguese, Spanish, and English. To the dismay of Francophones, the choice of English and Spanish reflected both the nature of the globalization process and Portugal's growing connections with Europe and the wider world.

   The theme of Expo '98 was "The Oceans, Heritage for the Future," and the official mascot-symbol was "Gil," a cartoon characterization of a drop of ocean water, based on the suggestion of schoolchildren from the small town of Barrancos. Somewhat in the spirit of Disney's Mickey Mouse, "Gil" reflected cheeriness, but his message was serious, alerting the public to the fact that the oceans were endangered and fresh drinking water increasingly in short supply for a burgeoning world population. Among the outstanding structures at Expo '98 was the Pavilion of Portugal, designed by Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza Vieira, and the Pavilion of the Oceans or the Oceanarium (which remained open to the public after the exposition closed), which was designed by an American architect.

   Despite the general success of the fair, critics gave mixed reviews to the historic commemoration of the Discoveries facets of the effort. No vessel from Vasco da Gama's 1497-99 famous voyage was reproduced at the fair's dockside exhibit—although there was a 19th-century sailing vessel and a reproduction of one of the vessels from Christopher Columbus's first voyage, constructed by Portuguese in Madeira—nor was there much else on Vasco da Gama in the Pavilion of Portugal. Instead, visitors were impressed with a multimedia show based on knowledge of a Portuguese shipwreck, a 17th-century nau, found by archaeologists in recent years. The sound and light show in this lovely space was magnificent. The most popular exhibits were the Oceanarium and the Utopia Pavilion, where lines could be hours long. Despite the fact that Expo '98 made only a weak effort to attract visitors from outside Europe, the general consensus was that it was a successful enterprise, unique in Portugal's record of historic and contemporary expositions since 1940.

    See also Commemorations, Portuguese historic.

κίνησις [ῑ], εως, ἡ,

A motion, opp. rest ([etym.] στάσις), Pl.Sph. 250a; opp. ἠρεμία, Arist.Ph. 202a5, etc.

2 in Cyrenaic philos., λεία κ., = ἡδονή, τραχεῖα κ., = πόνος, D.L.2.86; also

αἱ διὰ μορφῆς κατ' ὄψιν ἡδεῖαι κ. Epicur.Fr.67

; αἱ κ. αἱ ἀνθρωπικαί human emotions, Arr.Epict. 2.20.19.

3 dance, Ἄρεος κίνασις (sic) Tyrt.16, cf. Luc.Salt.63, Ephes.2 No.71;

τραγικὴ ἔνρυθμος κ. Inscr.Magn.165

.

4 movement, in a political sense,

ἐν κ. εἶναι Th.3.75

, cf. Plb.3.4.12; ἡ κ. ἡ Ἰουδαϊκή the Jewish revolt, OGI543.15 (Ancyra, ii A.D.); of the Peloponn. war, Th.1.1.

5 change, revolution,

κινήσεις πολιτείας Arist.Pol. 1268b25

.

6 movement of an army, Plb.10.23.1 (pl.);

πολεμικαὶ κ. Ael.Tact.3.4

, cf. Arr.Tact.20.1.

b removal, change of abode, Vett.Val.97.17 (pl.), al.

7 Gramm., inflexion,

τοῦ ζῆμι κ. οὐχ εὕρηται EM410.38

.

8 in Law, punitive action,

βασιλικὴ κ. Cod.Just.1.3.43.10

, cf. 10.27.2.7; also, setting a process in motion, PLond. 5.1663.13 (vi A.D.).

a U.K. government initiative intended to insure cost efficiency and effectiveness in the delivery of public services by local authorities. The best value initiative was announced in early 1997 to replace compulsory competitive tendering (CCT), and pilot schemes in selected local authorities began in April 1998. The Local Government Act of 1999 requires councils, as part of the best value process, to review all services over a five-year period, setting standards and performance indicators for each service, comparing performance with that of other bodies, and undertaking consultation with local taxpayers and service users.

a document describing the current activities of a business, setting out its aims and objectives and how they are to be achieved over a set period of time. A business plan may cover the activities of an organization or a group of companies, or it may deal with a single department within the organization. In the former case, it is sometimes referred to as a corporate plan. The sections of a business plan usually include a market analysis describing the target market, customers, and competitors, an operations plan describing how products and services will be developed and produced, and a financial section providing profit, budget, and cash flow forecasts, annual accounts, and financial requirements. Businesses may use a business plan internally as a framework for implementing strategy and improving performance or externally to attract investment or raise capital for development plans. A business plan may form part of the overall planning process, or corporate planning, within an organization and be used for the implementation of corporate strategy.

deciding on, and designing, the most appropriate structure for an organization. Stages of the organization planning process include: identifying and grouping activities or processes, setting out lines of authority and areas of responsibility, and possibly illustrating these through a formal organization chart.

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport

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Ackermann's father was a coachbuilder and harness-maker who in 1775 moved to Schneeberg. Rudolph was educated there and later entered his father's workshop for a short time. He visited Dresden, among other towns in Germany, and was resident in Paris for a short time, but eventually settled in London. For the first ten years of his life there he was employed in making designs for many of the leading coach builders. His steering-gear consisted of an arrangement of the track arms on the stub axles and their connection by the track rod in such a way that the inner wheel moved through a greater angle than the outer one, so giving approximately true rolling of the wheels in cornering. A necessary condition for this is that, in the plan view, the point of intersection of the axes of all the wheels must be at a point which always lies on the projection of the rear axle. In addition, the front wheels are inclined to bring the line of contact of the front wheels under the line of the pivots, about which they turn when cornering. This mechanism was not entirely new, having been proposed for windmill carriages in 1714 by Du Quet, but it was brought into prominence by Ackermann and so has come to bear his name.

In 1801 he patented a method of rendering paper, cloth and other materials waterproof and set up a factory in Chelsea for that purpose. He was one of the first private persons to light his business premises with gas. He also devoted some time to a patent for movable carriage axles between 1818 and 1820. In 1805 he was put in charge of the preparation of the funeral car for Lord Nelson.

Most of his life and endeavours were devoted to fine-art printing and publishing. He was responsible for the introduction into England of lithography as a fine art: it had first been introduced as a mechanical process in 1801, but was mainly used for copying until Ackermann took it up in 1817, setting up a press and engaging the services of a number of prominent artists, including W.H.Pyne, W.Combe, Pugin and Thomas Rowlandson. In 1819 he published an English translation of J.A.Senefelder's A Complete Course of Lithography, illustrated with lithographic plates from his press. He was much involved in charitable works for widows, children and wounded soldiers after the war of 1814. In 1830 he suffered "an attack of paralysis" which left him unable to continue in business. He died four years later and was buried at St Clement Danes.

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SUBJECT AREA: Recording

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After arriving in the USA in 1870 and becoming an American citizen, Berliner worked as a dry-goods clerk in Washington, DC, and for a period studied electricity at Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York. He invented an improved microphone and set up his own experimental laboratory in Washington, DC. He developed a microphone for telephone use and sold the rights to the Bell Telephone Company. Subsequently he was put in charge of their laboratory, remaining in that position for eight years. In 1881 Berliner, with his brothers Joseph and Jacob, founded the J.Berliner Telephonfabrik in Hanover, the first factory in Europe specializing in telephone equipment.

Inspired by the development work performed by T.A. Edison and in the Volta Laboratory (see C.S. Tainter), he analysed the existing processes for recording and reproducing sound and in 1887 developed a process for transferring lateral undulations scratched in soot into an etched groove that would make a needle and diaphragm vibrate. Using what may be regarded as a combination of the Phonautograph of Léon Scott de Martinville and the photo-engraving suggested by Charles Cros, in May 1887 he thus demonstrated the practicability of the laterally recorded groove. He termed the apparatus "Gramophone". In November 1887 he applied the principle to a glass disc and obtained an inwardly spiralling, modulated groove in copper and zinc. In March 1888 he took the radical step of scratching the lateral vibrations directly onto a rotating zinc disc, the surface of which was protected, and the subsequent etching created the groove. Using well-known principles of printing-plate manufacture, he developed processes for duplication by making a negative mould from which positive copies could be pressed in a thermoplastic compound. Toy gramophones were manufactured in Germany from 1889 and from 1892–3 Berliner manufactured both records and gramophones in the USA. The gramophones were hand-cranked at first, but from 1896 were based on a new design by E.R. Johnson. In 1897–8 Berliner spread his activities to England and Germany, setting up a European pressing plant in the telephone factory in Hanover, and in 1899 a Canadian company was formed. Various court cases over patents removed Berliner from direct running of the reconstructed companies, but he retained a major economic interest in E.R. Johnson's Victor Talking Machine Company. In later years Berliner became interested in aeronautics, in particular the autogiro principle. Applied acoustics was a continued interest, and a tile for controlling the acoustics of large halls was successfully developed in the 1920s.

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Darby's father, John, was a farmer who also worked a small forge to produce nails and other ironware needed on the farm. He was brought up in the Society of Friends, or Quakers, and this community remained important throughout his personal and working life. Darby was apprenticed to Jonathan Freeth, a malt-mill maker in Birmingham, and on completion of his apprenticeship in 1699 he took up the trade himself in Bristol. Probably in 1704, he visited Holland to study the casting of brass pots and returned to Bristol with some Dutch workers, setting up a brassworks at Baptist Mills in partnership with others. He tried substituting cast iron for brass in his castings, without success at first, but in 1707 he was granted a patent, "A new way of casting iron pots and other pot-bellied ware in sand without loam or clay". However, his business associates were unwilling to risk further funds in the experiments, so he withdrew his share of the capital and moved to Coalbrookdale in Shropshire. There, iron ore, coal, water-power and transport lay close at hand. He took a lease on an old furnace and began experimenting. The shortage and expense of charcoal, and his knowledge of the use of coke in malting, may well have led him to try using coke to smelt iron ore. The furnace was brought into blast in 1709 and records show that in the same year it was regularly producing iron, using coke instead of charcoal. The process seems to have been operating successfully by 1711 in the production of cast-iron pots and kettles, with some pig-iron destined for Bristol. Darby prospered at Coalbrookdale, employing coke smelting with consistent success, and he sought to extend his activities in the neighbourhood and in other parts of the country. However, ill health prevented him from pursuing these ventures with his previous energy. Coke smelting spread slowly in England and the continent of Europe, but without Darby's technological breakthrough the ever-increasing demand for iron for structures and machines during the Industrial Revolution simply could not have been met; it was thus an essential component of the technological progress that was to come.

Darby's eldest son, Abraham II (1711–63), entered the Coalbrookdale Company partnership in 1734 and largely assumed control of the technical side of managing the furnaces and foundry. He made a number of improvements, notably the installation of a steam engine in 1742 to pump water to an upper level in order to achieve a steady source of water-power to operate the bellows supplying the blast furnaces. When he built the Ketley and Horsehay furnaces in 1755 and 1756, these too were provided with steam engines. Abraham II's son, Abraham III (1750–89), in turn, took over the management of the Coalbrookdale works in 1768 and devoted himself to improving and extending the business. His most notable achievement was the design and construction of the famous Iron Bridge over the river Severn, the world's first iron bridge. The bridge members were cast at Coalbrookdale and the structure was erected during 1779, with a span of 100 ft (30 m) and height above the river of 40 ft (12 m). The bridge still stands, and remains a tribute to the skill and judgement of Darby and his workers.

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