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121 Gestetner, David
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. March 1854 Csorna, Hungaryd. 8 March 1939 Nice, France[br]Hungarian/British pioneer of stencil duplicating.[br]For the first twenty-five years of his life, Gestetner was a rolling stone and accordingly gathered no moss. Leaving school in 1867, he began working for an uncle in Sopron, making sausages. Four years later he apprenticed himself to another uncle, a stockbroker, in Vienna. The financial crisis of 1873 prompted a move to a restaurant, also in the family, but tiring of a menial existence, he emigrated to the USA, travelling steerage. He began to earn a living by selling Japanese kites: these were made of strong Japanese paper coated with lacquer, and he noted their long fibres and great strength, an observation that was later to prove useful when he was searching for a suitable medium for stencil duplicating. However, he did not prosper in the USA and he returned to Europe, first to Vienna and finally to London in 1879. He took a job with Fairholme \& Co., stationers in Shoe Lane, off Holborn; at last Gestetner found an outlet for his inventive genius and he began his life's work in developing stencil duplicating. His first patent was in 1879 for an application of the hectograph, an early method of duplicating documents. In 1881, he patented the toothed-wheel pen, or Cyclostyle, which made good ink-passing perforations in the stencil paper, with which he was able to pioneer the first practicable form of stencil duplicating. He then adopted a better stencil tissue of Japanese paper coated with wax, and later an improved form of pen. This assured the success of Gestetner's form of stencil duplicating and it became established practice in offices in the late 1880s. Gestetner began to manufacture the apparatus in premises in Sun Street, at first under the name of Fairholme, since they had defrayed the patent expenses and otherwise supported him financially, in return for which Gestetner assigned them his patent rights. In 1882 he patented the wheel pen in the USA and appointed an agent to sell the equipment there. In 1884 he moved to larger premises, and three years later to still larger premises. The introduction of the typewriter prompted modifications that enabled stencil duplicating to become both the standard means of printing short runs of copy and an essential piece of equipment in offices. Before the First World War, Gestetner's products were being sold around the world; in fact he created one of the first truly international distribution networks. He finally moved to a large factory to the north-east of London: when his company went public in 1929, it had a share capital of nearly £750,000. It was only with the development of electrostatic photocopying and small office offset litho machines that stencil duplicating began to decline in the 1960s. The firm David Gestetner had founded adapted to the new conditions and prospers still, under the direction of his grandson and namesake.[br]Further ReadingW.B.Proudfoot, 1972, The Origin of Stencil Duplicating London: Hutchinson (gives a good account of the method and the development of the Gestetner process, together with some details of his life).H.V.Culpan, 1951, "The House of Gestetner", in Gestetner 70th Anniversary Celebration Brochure, London: Gestetner.LRD -
122 Perkins, Jacob
[br]b. 9 July 1766 Newburyport, Massachusetts, USAd. 30 July 1849 London, England[br]American inventor of a nail-making machine and a method of printing banknotes, investigator of the use of steam at very high pressures.[br]Perkins's occupation was that of a gold-and silversmith; while he does not seem to have followed this after 1800, however, it gave him the skills in working metals which he would continue to employ in his inventions. He had been working in America for four years before he patented his nail-making machine in 1796. At the time there was a great shortage of nails because only hand-forged ones were available. By 1800, other people had followed his example and produced automatic nail-making machines, but in 1811 Perkins' improved machines were introduced to England by J.C. Dyer. Eventually Perkins had twenty-one American patents for a range of inventions in his name.In 1799 Perkins invented a system of engraving steel plates for printing banknotes, which became the foundation of modern siderographic work. It discouraged forging and was adopted by many banking houses, including the Federal Government when the Second United States Bank was inaugurated in 1816. This led Perkins to move to Philadelphia. In the intervening years, Perkins had improved his nail-making machine, invented a machine for graining morocco leather in 1809, a fire-engine in 1812, a letter-lock for bank vaults and improved methods of rolling out spoons in 1813, and improved armament and equipment for naval ships from 1812 to 1815.It was in Philadelphia that Perkins became interested in the steam engine, when he met Oliver Evans, who had pioneered the use of high-pressure steam. He became a member of the American Philosophical Society and conducted experiments on the compressibility of water before a committee of that society. Perkins claimed to have liquified air during his experiments in 1822 and, if so, was the real discoverer of the liquification of gases. In 1819 he came to England to demonstrate his forgery-proof system of printing banknotes, but the Bank of England was the only one which did not adopt his system.While in London, Perkins began to experiment with the highest steam pressures used up to that time and in 1822 took out his first of nineteen British patents. This was followed by another in 1823 for a 10 hp (7.5 kW) engine with only 2 in. (51 mm) bore, 12 in. (305 mm) stroke but a pressure of 500 psi (35 kg/cm2), for which he claimed exceptional economy. After 1826, Perkins abandoned his drum boiler for iron tubes and steam pressures of 1,500 psi (105 kg/cm2), but the materials would not withstand such pressures or temperatures for long. It was in that same year that he patented a form of uniflow cylinder that was later taken up by L.J. Todd. One of his engines ran for five days, continuously pumping water at St Katherine's docks, but Perkins could not raise more finance to continue his experiments.In 1823 one his high-pressure hot-water systems was installed to heat the Duke of Wellington's house at Stratfield Saye and it acquired a considerable vogue, being used by Sir John Soane, among others. In 1834 Perkins patented a compression ice-making apparatus, but it did not succeed commercially because ice was imported more cheaply from Norway as ballast for sailing ships. Perkins was often dubbed "the American inventor" because his inquisitive personality allied to his inventive ingenuity enabled him to solve so many mechanical challenges.[br]Further ReadingHistorical Society of Pennsylvania, 1943, biography which appeared previously as a shortened version in the Transactions of the Newcomen Society 24.D.Bathe and G.Bathe, 1943–5, "The contribution of Jacob Perkins to science and engineering", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 24.D.S.L.Cardwell, 1971, From Watt to Clausius. The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age, London: Heinemann (includes comments on the importance of Perkins's steam engine).A.F.Dufton, 1940–1, "Early application of engineering to warming of buildings", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 21 (includes a note on Perkins's application of a high-pressure hot-water heating system).RLH -
123 Manufacturing
эк., стат., амер. производство (по NAICS 2002: сектор экономики, в который включены организации, занимающиеся механическим, физическим или химическим изменением свойств материалов и веществ, превращая их в другие материалы и вещества, а также сборкой новых товаров их частей, кроме строительства)See:North American Industry Classification System, Food Manufacturing, Beverage and Tobacco Product Manufacturing, Textile Mills, Textile Product Mills, Apparel Manufacturing, Leather and Allied Product Manufacturing, Wood Product Manufacturing, Paper Manufacturing, Printing and Related Support Activities, Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing, Chemical Manufacturing, Plastics and Rubber Products Manufacturing, Nonmetallic Mineral Product Manufacturing, Primary Metal Manufacturing, Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing, Machinery Manufacturing, Computer and Electronic Product Manufacturing, Electrical Equipment, Appliance, and Component Manufacturing, Electrical Equipment, Appliance, and Component Manufacturing, Electrical Equipment, Appliance, and Component Manufacturing, Electrical Equipment, Appliance, and Component Manufacturing -
124 automatic
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125 устройство
1. с. apparatus, arrangement device, equipment, facility, means, gear2. с. arrangement, designблагодаря такому устройству … — by this arrangement
буквопечатающее устройство — character printing device; alphabetic printer
дальномерное устройство — distance-measuring device; ranging unit
дозирующее устройство — metering device; measuring equipment
защитное устройство — protection device; safe-guard
Синонимический ряд:1. конструкция (сущ.) конструкция2. определение (сущ.) определение3. организация (сущ.) организация4. поступление (сущ.) зачисление; поступление5. приспособление (сущ.) механизм; приспособление -
126 apparatus
جِهَاز \ apparatus: (a piece of) special equipment: I have my own apparatus for printing photographs. appliance: a piece of equipment (esp. electrical or mechanical). device: a clever plan; any machine, instrument, or piece of equipment that is planned for a special purpose: Have you a device for separating the cream from milk?. gear: equipment: Sports gear. set: an instrument for receiving radio or television material. -
127 appliance
جِهَاز \ apparatus: (a piece of) special equipment: I have my own apparatus for printing photographs. appliance: a piece of equipment (esp. electrical or mechanical). device: a clever plan; any machine, instrument, or piece of equipment that is planned for a special purpose: Have you a device for separating the cream from milk?. gear: equipment: Sports gear. set: an instrument for receiving radio or television material. -
128 device
جِهَاز \ apparatus: (a piece of) special equipment: I have my own apparatus for printing photographs. appliance: a piece of equipment (esp. electrical or mechanical). device: a clever plan; any machine, instrument, or piece of equipment that is planned for a special purpose: Have you a device for separating the cream from milk?. gear: equipment: Sports gear. set: an instrument for receiving radio or television material.
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