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81 Manuel II, king
(1890-1932)The last reigning king of Portugal, and the last of the Braganza dynasty to rule. Born in 1890, the son of King Carlos I and Queen Amélia, young Manuel witnessed the murder of his father and his elder brother, the heir apparent, Dom Luís, by anarchists in the streets of Lisbon, on 1 February 1908. In the same carriage as his mortally wounded father and brother, and himself wounded, Manuel survived to ascend the throne. His brief reign was troubled by political instability, factionalism, and rising republicanism. As the republican revolution succeeded, Manuel and his family, including the Queen Mother Amélia, fled from the bombarded Necessidades Palace in Lisbon to the Mafra Palace. Rather than abdicate or remain as a prisoner of the republic, Manuel fled by ship to exile in Great Britain, where he remained for the rest of his life. Occupying himself with his hobby of collecting rare Portuguese books, Manuel died prematurely at age 42, in 1932, at his estate south of London. -
82 Maria I, queen
(1734-1816)Daughter of King José I (r. 175077), she married her uncle Pedro III, her father's brother. Upon becoming queen in 1777, with the death of her father, Maria I dismissed the Marquis of Pombal, the king's prime minister. Known in Portuguese history by the nickname of "The Pious," Maria was extremely religious and, during her brief reign, attempted to reverse the dictator Pombal's statist, anticlerical policies, but to little avail. Her life and reign were transformed by family tragedies and by personal reactions to the news of the cataclysmic events in France. Maria's mental weakness was exacerbated progressively by the death of her consort Pedro (1786) and her eldest son João (1788) and gravely affected by news of the French Revolution and its excesses (1789-92). In 1792, she went insane and ceased to reign; her son João took her place and, in 1799, became prince regent. When, in 1807, the royal family fled with a British fleet to Brazil as France occupied Portugal, mad Maria, restrained, it was said, in an iron cage, was taken along. In 1816, while the royal court remained in Brazil, she died in Rio de Janeiro.See also João VI, king -
83 Necessidades, Palace of
Necessidades Palace is a sprawling, massive 18th-century palace in western Lisbon. As in the cases of Mafra and Belém Palaces, The Palace of the Necessities was ordered built by King João V, on the site of an old chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Necessities. The original 18th-century building consists of a chapel, palace, and convent, and contains a considerable amount of historic artifacts and art. As the current headquarters of Portugal's Foreign Service and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Necessidades is a working museum-palace with many different sections. Various mon-archs resided in the rose-colored building. During the course of the 5 October 1910 republican revolution in Lisbon, the last reigning king, Manuel II, spent his last night as sovereign in Necessidades Palace before escaping to Mafra Palace en route to exile in Great Britain. Damage to the palace from republican naval shelling has since been repaired. One section of the palace houses the Ministry of Foreign Affair's official library and archives, where several centuries of records of external relations are deposited. -
84 PIDE
(Political Police)Commonly known as the PIDE, the Estado Novo's political police was established in 1932. The acronym of PIDE stood for Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado or International and State Defense State Police, the name it was known by from 1945 to 1969. From 1932 to 1945, it was known by a different acronym: PVDE or Polícia da Vigilância e de Defesa do Estado. After Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar was replaced in office by Marcello Caetano, the political police was renamed DGS, Direcção-Geral da Seguridade or Directorate General of Security.This force was the most infamous means of repression and a major source of fear among the opposition during the long history of the Estado Novo. While it was described as "secret police," nearly everyone knew of its existence, although its methods — in theory—were "secret." The PVDE/PIDE/DGS had functions much broader than purely the repression of any opposition to the regime. It combined the roles of a border police, customs inspectorate, immigration force, political police, and a regime vetting administration of credentials for government or even private sector jobs. Furthermore, this police had powers of arrest, pursued nonpolitical criminals, and administered its own prison system. From the 1950s on, the PIDE extended its operations to the empire and began to directly suppress oppositionists in various colonies in Africa and Asia.While this police became more notorious and known to the public after 1958-61, before that new outburst of antiregime activity, it was perhaps more effective in neutralizing or destroying oppositionist groups. It was especially effective in damaging the Communist Party of Portugal (PCP) in the 1930s and early 1940s. Yet, beginning with the unprecedented strikes and political activities of 194345, the real heyday had passed. During World War II, its top echelons were in the pay of both the Allies and Axis powers, although in later propaganda from the left, the PIDE's pro-Axis reputation was carefully groomed into a myth.As for its actual strength and resources, it seems clear that it employed several thousand officers and also had thousands of informants in the general population. Under new laws of 1945, this police force received the further power to institute 90-day detention without charge or trial and such a detention could easily be renewed. A who's-who of the political opposition emerges from those who spent years in PIDE prisons or were frequently arrested without charge. The PIDE remained numerous and well-funded into 1974, when the Revolution of 25 April 1974 overthrew the regime and abolished it. A major question remains: If this police knew much about the Armed Forces Movement coup conspiracy, why was it so ineffective in arresting known leaders and squashing the plot? -
85 Salazarism
Supposedly the ideology or ideologies characteristic of the Estado Novo developed and directed by Prime Minister An- tónio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970), who governed Portugal as premier from 1932 to 1968, and his ruling group of associates and colleagues. Scholars debate why this regime endured so long and the extent to which it was or was not fascist. As to ideologies, Salazar's own education and beliefs were strongly influenced by his Catholic education for nine years in the Seminary at Viseu, by the decrees of Popes Leo X and Pius IX, and by conservative, rural customs. Rather than one ideology, the former Coimbra University economics professor reflected various creeds including Portuguese nationalism, integralism, corporativism doctrines, and various Catholic beliefs that were derived from Thomist teachings, as well as from the writings of the French ideologue Charles Maurras and his disciples. The spirit of Salazarism, if there is any truth to the notion of there being one typical ideology, is founded on a reaction against basic ideas from the French Revolution of individual liberty, fraternity, and equality; against the revolutionary collectivist doctrines including socialism and communism; and against the excesses of politics and government during the ill-fated First Republic (1910-26). Salazar, nevertheless, was not only a man of thought but also a man of action. -
86 Eiffel, Alexandre Gustave
SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering[br]b. 15 December 1832 Dijon, Franced. 27 December 1923 Paris, France[br]French engineer, best known for the famous tower in Paris that bears his name.[br]During his long life Eiffel, together with a number of architects, was responsible for the design and construction of a wide variety of bridges, viaducts, harbour installations, exhibition halls, galleries and department stores; he set up his own firm in 1867 to handle such construction. Of particular note were his great arched bridges, such as the 530 ft (162 m) span arch over the River Douro at Oporto in Portugal (1877–9) and the 550 ft (168 m) span of the Pont de Garabit over the Truyère in France (1880–4). He was responsible in 1884 for the protective iron-work for the Statue of Liberty in New York and, a year later, for the great dome over the Nice Observatory. In 1876 he had collaborated with Boileau to build the Bon Marché department store in Paris. The predominant material for all these structures was iron, and, in some cases glass was important. The famous Eiffel Tower in Paris is entirely of wrought iron, and the legs are supported on masonry piers that are each set into concrete beneath the ground. The idea of the tower was first conceived in 1884 by Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nougier, and Eiffel won a competition for the commission to built the structure. His imaginative and practical scheme was for a strong lightweight construction 984 ft (300 m) high, with its 12,000 sections to be prefabricated and riveted together largely before erection; the open, perforated design reduced the problems of wind resistance. The tower was constructed on schedule by 1889 to commemorate the centenary of the outbreak of the French Revolution and was the tallest structure in the world until the erection of the Empire State Building in New York in 1930–2.[br]Further ReadingJ.Harriss, 1975, The Tallest Tower: Eiffel and the Belle Epoque, Boston: Hough ton Mifflin.F.Poncetton, 1939, Eiffel: Le Magicien du Fer, Paris: Tournelle.DYBiographical history of technology > Eiffel, Alexandre Gustave
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87 Whitehead, Robert
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 3 January 1823 Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire, Englandd. 19 November 1903 Shrivenham, Wiltshire, England[br]English inventor of the torpedo.[br]At the age of 14 Whitehead was apprenticed by his father, who ran a cotton-bleaching business, to an engineering firm in Manchester. He moved in 1847 to join his uncle, who was the Manager of another engineering firm, and three years later Whitehead set up on his own in Milan, where he made mechanical improvements to the silk-weaving industry and designed drainage machines for the Lombardy marshes.In 1848 he was forced to move from Italy because of the revolution and settled in Fiume, which was then part of Austria. There he concen-. trated on designing and building engines for warships, and in 1864 the Austrians invited him to participate in a project to develop a "floating torpedo". In those days the torpedo was synonymous with the underwater mine, and Whitehead believed that he could do better than this proposal and produce an explosive weapon that could propel itself through the water. He set to work with his son John and a mechanic, producing the first version of his torpedo in 1866. It had a range of only 700 yd (640 m) and a speed of just 7 knots (13 km/h), as well as depth-keeping problems, but even so, especially after he had reduced the last problem by the use of a "balance chamber", the Austrian authorities were sufficiently impressed to buy construction rights and to decorate him. Other navies quickly followed suit and within twenty years almost every navy in the world was equipped with the Whitehead torpedo, its main attraction being that no warship, however large, was safe from it. During this time Whitehead continued to improve on his design, introducing a servo-motor and gyroscope, thereby radically improving range, speed and accuracy.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsOrder of Max Joseph (Austria) 1868. Légion d'honneur 1884. Whitehead also received decorations from Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, Italy and Greece.Further ReadingDictionary of National Biography, 1912, Vol. 3, Suppl. 2, London: Smith, Elder.CM
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