-
21 language
1) язык || языковой2) машинный язык; набор символов ( машины)•- application-oriented language
- applicative language
- APT programming language
- APT-based language
- artificial language
- assembler language
- assembly language
- block diagram language
- calculus language
- classificatory indexing language
- command language
- communication-information language
- computer language
- context-free language
- context-sensitive language
- control language
- controlled language
- conversational programming language
- data definition language
- data description language
- data general language
- data general programming language
- data manipulation language
- data retrieval language
- data storage description language
- database control language
- database language
- database programming language
- definition language
- description indexing language
- description language
- descriptor indexing language
- DGL interpretative programming language
- documentary language
- domain-dependent language
- domain-independent language
- extended language
- extensible language
- formal language
- formalized language
- general-purpose language
- generic language
- geometry technology language
- global programming language
- graphics picture drawing language
- high-level language
- highly coded language
- hybrid language
- implementation language
- index retrieval language
- indexing language
- information language
- information processing language
- information retrieval language
- informational language
- information-algorithmic language
- interactive language
- interactive reader language
- intermediary language
- intermediate language
- interpretive language
- interrogation language
- ISO language
- job command language
- job control language
- language of science
- logical-information language
- machine control language
- machine language
- machinist's language
- manipulator-oriented language
- manufacturing application language
- meaning-representation language
- meta language
- native language
- natural language
- NC programming language
- numerical command language
- object description language
- object-oriented language
- operational performance analysis language
- plain language
- powerful programming language
- predicate calculus language
- predicate language
- predicate logic language
- problem-oriented language
- procedural language
- processing language
- process-oriented language
- production language
- production-rule language
- program language
- programming language
- query input language
- query language
- representation language
- retrieval language
- robotics language
- robot-programming language
- robot-specialized language
- rule-based programming language
- shop-oriented language
- Siman simulation language
- simulation language
- source language
- special interface programming language
- specification language
- state language
- structured query language
- switching language
- task description language
- task level language
- task-oriented language
- uncontrolled language
- very high level languageEnglish-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > language
-
22 layer
2) горн. пласт7) вчт. уровень ( иерархической структуры)•layer free from base — кфт. бесподложечный слой-
ablation layer
-
absorbed layer
-
acceptor layer
-
accumulation layer
-
adsorbed layer
-
alignment layer
-
amorphous layer
-
anode layer
-
antihalation layer
-
antireflection layer
-
antireflective layer
-
antistatic layer
-
Appleton layer
-
application layer
-
as-grown layer
-
atmospheric boundary layer
-
back layer
-
backing layer
-
back-up layer
-
ballast layer
-
barrier layer
-
base layer
-
batch layer
-
blending layer
-
blocking layer
-
bottom layer
-
boundary layer
-
buffer layer
-
buried layer
-
cable layer
-
cap layer
-
cathode interface layer
-
cathode layer
-
chalcogenide layer
-
Chapman layer
-
chemisorption layer
-
chilling layer
-
chill layer
-
cladding layer
-
clad layer
-
cloud layer
-
cloud-topped boundary layer
-
coal layer
-
coil layers
-
collector layer
-
composite layer
-
compression layer
-
concentric layers
-
conducting layer
-
confining layer
-
contact layer
-
continuous layer
-
convective unstable layer
-
covering layer
-
cushion layer
-
D layer
-
dan layer
-
dead layer
-
depletion layer
-
deposited layer
-
diamond-bearing layer
-
dielectric layer
-
diffused layer
-
diffusion-source layer
-
dipole layer
-
dislocation layer
-
doped layer
-
drain layer
-
driving layer
-
dueling layer
-
dummy layer
-
dust layer
-
E layer
-
effective layer
-
elastomer layer
-
elevated layer
-
embedded metal layer
-
emitter layer
-
emitting layer
-
emulsion layer
-
enriched layer
-
epitaxial layer
-
epoxy layer
-
evaporated layer
-
extension layer
-
F layer
-
fettled layer
-
field oxide layer
-
filter layer
-
fog layer
-
gate insulation layer
-
ground layer
-
gunned layer
-
hanging layer
-
heat-insulating layer
-
Heaviside layer
-
heavy layer
-
high-concentration layer
-
high-mobility layer
-
hydraulic fill layer
-
image receiving layer
-
impurity layer
-
insulating layer
-
interface layer
-
intermediate layer
-
intrinsic layer
-
inversion layer
-
ion-implanted layer
-
ionized layer
-
ionospheric layer
-
Kennelly-Heaviside layer
-
light-sensitive layer
-
link layer
-
low-emission layer
-
low-mobility layer
-
masking layer
-
metallic layer
-
metallization layer
-
moderating layer
-
monoatomic layer
-
monocrystalline layer
-
monomolecular layer
-
multiple layer
-
n layer
-
native layer
-
negative layer
-
network layer
-
neutral layer
-
nonconducting layer
-
nonducting layer
-
nucleating layer
-
oceanic mixed layer
-
ohmic layer
-
oil layer
-
ozone layer
-
p layer
-
paper layer
-
passivation layer
-
photoconductive layer
-
photographic layer
-
photosensitive layer
-
physical layer
-
physisorption layer
-
planarization layer
-
planetary boundary layer
-
plank layer
-
polycrystalline silicon layer
-
poly silicon layer
-
presentation layer
-
protective layer
-
receiving layer
-
restraining layer
-
sandwiched layer
-
scattering layer
-
scuff resisting layer
-
sealing layer
-
seal layer
-
semiconducting layer
-
separation layer
-
session layer
-
shallow diffused layer
-
shallow layer
-
sintered layer
-
slag-impregnated surface layer
-
solvent layer
-
sporadic-E layer
-
sputtered layer
-
sputter layer
-
stratified layers
-
strip layers
-
subbing layer
-
subcloud layer
-
substrate layer
-
subsurface layer
-
superconducting layer
-
supernatant layer
-
surface layer
-
thermal boundary layer
-
transition layer
-
transmission control layer
-
transparent layer
-
transport layer
-
trapping layer
-
tropospheric layer
-
turbulent boundary layer
-
underglaze layer
-
undoped layer
-
unsteady boundary layer
-
velocity boundary layer
-
velocity layer
-
wall boundary layer
-
wearing layer
-
web cross layers
-
wind-mixed layer
-
wire reinforcement layer
-
wiring layer -
23 magnet
1) магнит
2) обмоточный
– adjustment of magnet
– application magnet
– artificial magnet
– bar magnet
– beam-positioning magnet
– braking magnet
– centering magnet
– ceramic magnet
– clutch magnet
– compensating magnet
– control magnet
– conversion to a magnet
– convert to a magnet
– corrector magnet
– damping magnet
– deflecting magnet
– drag magnet
– field magnet
– focusing magnet
– holding magnet
– horizontal magnet
– laminated magnet
– lifting magnet
– magnet ages
– magnet attracts
– magnet keeper
– magnet pinch
– magnet repels
– magnet wire
– magnet yoke
– molecular magnet
– native magnet
– natural magnet
– permanent magnet
– plunger magnet
– pot magnet
– reference magnet
– release magnet
– reset magnet
– rotary magnet
– selector magnet
– superconducting magnet
– tripping magnet
– vertical magnet
permanent magnet generator — генератор с постоянными магнитами
-
24 API connection
-
25 trademark
(™; T.M.; tm)марк., юр. товарний знак; торговий знак; торгова марка; фірмовий знак; фабрична марка; виробничий знакспецифічний знак у формі символу, графічного позначення фірми (logo), назви, букв, ескіза, заклику (slogan) і т. ін., що ототожнює його з певним продуктом (product), послугою (service¹) або організацією і тим відокремлює від продуктів конкурентів; ♦ торговий знак забезпечений правовим захистом, що дає власникові виключне право ним користуватись, а також є видом інтелектуальної власності (intellectualproperty) та належить до категорії нематеріальних активів (intangible assets); серед найбільш популярних торгових знаків: графічний знак Олімпіади, букви BMW — відома марка авто; назва Microsoft — специфічні комп'ютерні програмні засоби═════════■═════════abstract trademark абстрактний товарний знак; active trademark чинний товарний знак • використовуваний товарний знак; altered trademark змінений товарний знак • товарний знак із змінами; amended trademark змінений товарний знак • товарний знак із змінами; arbitrary trademark умовний товарний знак; associated trademarks об'єднані товарні знаки; circle trademark товарний знак у вигляді кола; collective trademark колективний товарний знак; combined trademark об'єднаний товарний знак; computerized trademark товарний знак покоління комп'ютерів; corporate trademark фірмовий товарний знак; descriptive trademark описовий товарний знак; distinctive trademark розпізнавальний товарний знак; famous trademark загальновідомий товарний знак; federally-registered trademark федеральний товарний знак; figurative trademark зображальний товарний знак; figure trademark цифровий товарний знак • зображальний товарний знак; forged trademark підроблений торговий знак • контрафактний товарний знак; imitated trademark імітоварний товарний знак; infringed trademark товарний знак, права якого порушені; international trademark міжнародний товарний знак; jointly owned trademark товарний знак спільного володіння; legitimate trademark товарний знак, що охороняється законом; letter trademark товарний знак у вигляді літер; monogram trademark товарний знак у вигляді монограми • знак-монограма; native trademark місцевий товарний знак; obsolete trademark застарілий товарний знак; official trademark офіційний товарний знак; old-fashioned trademark старомодний товарний знак; persuasive trademark переконливий товарний знак; pharmaceutical trademark товарний знак фармацевтичного виробу; pictorial trademark товарний знак у вигляді зображення; printed trademark друкований товарний знак; prospective trademark потенційний товарний знак; recognized trademark визнаний товарний знак; registered trademark зареєстрований товарний знак; service trademark товарний знак послуги; signature trademark товарний знак у вигляді підпису; similar trademarks подібні товарні знаки; sketchy trademark контурний товарний знак; sophisticated trademark ускладнений товарний знак; sound trademark звуковий товарний знак; strong trademark ефективний товарний знак; stylized trademark стилізований товарний знак; symbolic trademark товарний знак із використанням символу; technical trademark технічний товарний знак; three-dimentional trademark об'ємний товарний знак; two-dimensional trademark двовимірний товарний знак; uniform trademarks однакові товарні знаки; unregistered trademark незареєстрований торговий знак; visual trademark візуальний товарний знак; weak trademark неефективний товарний знак; well-known trademark загальновідомий товарний знак; world-renowned trademark визнаний у світі товарний знак; word trademark словесний товарний знак═════════□═════════an infringement upon a trademark порушення права товарного знака; registration of a trademark реєстрація товарного знака; trademarks act закон про товарні знаки • акт про товарні знаки; trademark agreement угода про товарні знаки; trademark application заява на реєстрацію товарного знака; trademark certificate свідоцтво на товарний знак; trademark design ескіз товарного знака • зразок товарного знака • проект товарного знака; trademark law закон про товарний знак; trademark protection захист товарного знака; trademark registration реєстрація товарного знака; to hold a trademark бути власником товарного знака; to identify by trademark встановлювати/встановити за товарним знаком; to own a trademark бути власником товарного знакаtrademark ‡ A. assets¹ (383)пор. copyrightпор. patentпор. brand* * *торговельна марка; торговельний знак; фабрична марка -
26 program
1) программаа) план действий; графикб) последовательность действий, выполняемых компьютером для достижения определённой целив) описание выполняемых компьютером действий на языке программирования или в машинном коде2) разрабатывать программу; планировать; составлять график3) вчт программировать•- absolute program
- accounting program
- activity program
- activity-based program
- add-in program
- AI program
- antivirus program
- application program
- artificial intellect program
- assembler program
- assembly program
- author program
- authoring program
- authorized program
- autostart program
- background program
- batch program
- batch circuit design program
- benchmark program
- blue-ribbon program
- bootstrap program
- brain-damaged program
- brittle program
- broadcast program
- broadcasting program
- broken program
- brute-force program
- byte-code program
- cache program
- CAD program
- calendar program
- CGI program
- channel program
- character-based program
- check program
- checking program
- chip planning program
- closed program
- command control program
- command-driven program
- commercial program
- communications program
- compiler program
- compiling program
- compressor program
- computer program
- computer-aided design program
- control program
- consulting program
- conversational program
- copy program
- core program - cuspy program
- data acquisition program
- debugging program
- decision program
- default output program
- despooling program
- diagnostic program
- dialer program
- dictionary program
- distance-learning program
- dongle-protected program
- draw program
- drawing program
- drill-and-practice program
- dummy program
- edit program - event-driven program
- executable program
- execute-only program
- executive program
- fax program
- fetch program
- file handling program
- file management program
- flamage-generating program
- flexible program
- floating-point program
- foreground program
- form letter program
- froggy program
- function program
- generalized program
- goal-driven program
- graphics program
- grundy program
- hard disk backup program
- hardware program
- hard-wired program
- helper program
- heuristic program
- high-end program
- high frequency active auroral research program
- inference program
- information program
- install program
- input/output program
- input/output limited program
- interactive program
- interpretive program
- LAN backup program
- language translator program
- LAN-ignorant program
- LAN memory management program
- layout-versus-layout program
- learning program
- library program
- linear program
- looping program
- macro program
- mailing list program
- mail-merging program
- main program
- main-line program
- master program
- memory management program
- memory resident program
- menu-driven program
- merge-print program
- MIDI program
- monitor program
- music program
- native program
- network control program
- object program
- one-shot program
- overlay program
- packaged programs
- page composition program
- page layout program
- page makeup program
- paint program
- paintbrush program
- painting program
- peripheral limited program - piped program
- plugged program
- postmortem program
- preemptible program
- preemptive program
- presentation graphics program - program-aid program
- project management program
- quiz program
- radio program
- RAM-resident program
- record-oriented database management program
- reenterable program
- relocatable program
- remote control program
- reusable program
- robot program
- robust program
- routing program
- security program
- self-replicating program
- sequence checking program
- service program
- setup program
- simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis
- simulator program
- snapshot program
- snapshot trace program
- sort program
- sort/merge program
- source program
- spelling-check program
- spreadsheet program
- stand-alone program
- star program
- supervisor program
- supervisory program
- support program
- sustaining program
- symbol manipulation program
- symbolic math program
- system program
- table-oriented database management program
- tailor-made program
- target program
- task interrupt control program
- television program
- terminal interface program
- test program
- thesaurus program
- time-sharing program
- tracing program
- transient program
- transistor analysis program
- trojan-horse program
- tutorial program - user program
- utility program
- vector-to-raster conversion program
- videotape program
- Windows program
- word processing program -
27 program
1) программаа) план действий; графикб) последовательность действий, выполняемых компьютером для достижения определённой целив) описание выполняемых компьютером действий на языке программирования или в машинном коде2) разрабатывать программу; планировать; составлять график3) вчт. программировать•- accounting program
- activity program
- activity-based program
- add-in program
- AI program
- antivirus program
- application program
- artificial intellect program
- assembler program
- assembly program
- author program
- authoring program
- authorized program
- autostart program
- background program
- batch circuit design program
- batch program
- benchmark program
- blue-ribbon program
- bootstrap program
- brain-damaged program
- brittle program
- broadcast program
- broadcasting program
- broken program
- brute-force program
- byte-code program
- cache program
- CAD program
- calendar program
- CGI program
- channel program
- character-based program
- check program
- checking program
- chip planning program
- closed program
- command control program
- command-driven program
- commercial program
- communications program
- compiler program
- compiling program
- compressor program
- computer program
- computer-aided design program
- consulting program
- control program
- conversational program
- copy program
- core program
- coresident programs
- crafty program
- cuspy program
- data acquisition program
- debugging program
- decision program
- default output program
- despooling program
- diagnostic program
- dialer program
- dictionary program
- distance-learning program
- dongle-protected program
- draw program
- drawing program
- drill-and-practice program
- dummy program
- edit program
- electronic circuit analysis program
- entertainment program
- event-driven program
- executable program
- execute-only program
- executive program
- fax program
- fetch program
- file handling program
- file management program
- flamage-generating program
- flexible program
- floating-point program
- foreground program
- form letter program
- froggy program
- function program
- generalized program
- goal-driven program
- graphics program
- grundy program
- hard disk backup program
- hardware program
- hard-wired program
- helper program
- heuristic program
- high frequency active auroral research program
- high-end program
- inference program
- information program
- input/output limited program
- input/output program
- install program
- interactive program
- interpretive program
- LAN backup program
- LAN memory management program
- language translator program
- LAN-ignorant program
- layout-versus-layout program
- learning program
- library program
- linear program
- looping program
- macro program
- mailing list program
- mail-merging program
- main program
- main-line program
- master program
- memory management program
- memory resident program
- menu-driven program
- merge-print program
- MIDI program
- monitor program
- music program
- native program
- network control program
- object program
- one-shot program
- overlay program
- packaged programs
- page composition program
- page layout program
- page makeup program
- paint program
- paintbrush program
- painting program
- peripheral limited program
- personal computer LAN program
- pilot program
- piped program
- plugged program
- postmortem program
- preemptible program
- preemptive program
- presentation graphics program
- primary control program
- problem program
- program for integrated shipboard electronics
- program-aid program
- project management program
- quiz program
- radio program
- RAM-resident program
- record-oriented database management program
- reenterable program
- relocatable program
- remote control program
- reusable program
- robot program
- robust program
- routing program
- security program
- self-replicating program
- sequence checking program
- service program
- setup program
- simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis
- simulator program
- snapshot program
- snapshot trace program
- sort program
- sort/merge program
- source program
- spelling-check program
- spreadsheet program
- stand-alone program
- star program
- supervisor program
- supervisory program
- support program
- sustaining program
- symbol manipulation program
- symbolic math program
- system program
- table-oriented database management program
- tailor-made program
- target program
- task interrupt control program
- television program
- terminal interface program
- test program
- thesaurus program
- time-sharing program
- tracing program
- transient program
- transistor analysis program
- trojan-horse program
- tutorial program
- UNIX-to-UNIX copy program
- unsupported program
- user program
- utility program
- vector-to-raster conversion program
- videotape program
- Windows program
- word processing programThe New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > program
-
28 language
язык || языковой- action description language
- actual machine language
- agent programming language
- AI language
- Algol-like language
- algorithmical language
- algorithmic language
- application-oriented language
- applicative language
- artificial language
- assembler language
- assembly language
- assembly-output language
- assignment-free language
- behavioral language
- bidirectional language
- block-structured language
- Boolean-based language
- business definition language
- business-oriented language
- calculus-type language
- C-based language
- client-side language
- code language
- command language
- compiled language
- compiler language
- component definition language
- composite language
- computer language
- computer-dependent language
- computer-independent language
- computer-oriented language
- computer-programming language
- computer-sensitive language
- consensus language
- context-free language
- control language
- conversational language
- core language
- data definition language
- data description language
- data language
- data manipulation language
- data storage description language
- database language
- data-entry language
- data-flow language
- data-query language
- declarative language
- defining language
- descriptive language
- descriptor language
- design language
- device media control language
- direct execution language
- directly interpretable language
- Dyck language
- end-user language
- escape language
- evolutive language
- executive-control language
- executive language
- explicit language
- extensible language
- fabricated language
- finite state language
- flow language
- foreign language
- formalized language
- frame-based language
- freestanding language
- functional language
- generated language
- graphics language
- graph-oriented language
- hardware-description language
- hardware language
- higher-level language
- higher-order language
- host language
- human language
- human-oriented language
- human-readable language
- indexed language
- information retrieval language
- informational language
- information language
- inherently ambiguous language
- input language
- input/output language
- instruction language
- integrated language
- interactive language
- interim language
- intermediate language
- internal language
- interpreted language
- job control language
- job-oriented language
- knowledge representation language
- language pair
- letter-equivalent languages
- linear language
- linear-programming language
- list-processing language
- logic-type language
- low-level language
- machine language
- machine-dependent language
- machine-independent language
- machine-oriented language
- macroassembly language
- macro language
- macroinstruction language
- macroprogramming language
- man-to-computer language
- mathematical formular language
- memory management language
- mnemonic language
- modeling language
- native language
- natural language
- NC programming language
- nested language
- network-oriented language
- nonprocedural language
- numder language
- object language
- object modeling language
- object-oriented language
- one-dimensional language
- operator-oriented language
- original language
- page description language
- parallel language
- phrase structure language
- predicate language
- predicate logic-based language
- predicate logic language
- privacy language
- problem statement language
- problem-oriented language
- procedural language
- procedure-oriented language
- process control language
- production language
- program language
- programming language
- pseudo language
- pseudomachine language
- query language
- readable specification language
- reference language
- regular language
- relational language
- relational-type language
- representation language - requirements modeling language
- restricted language
- rule-based language
- ruly language
- schema language
- science-oriented language
- script language
- self-contained language
- semantic-formal language
- semiformal language
- sentential language
- serial language
- simulation language
- single-assignment language
- source language
- specialized language
- specification language
- stream-based language
- strict language
- structured programming language
- structured query language
- super language
- super-high-level language
- symbolic language
- symbolic programming language
- syntax language
- synthetic language
- system input language
- system language
- system-oriented language
- tabular language
- target language
- TC language
- time sharing language
- type-free language
- unified modeling language
- update language
- user language
- user-oriented language
- very-high-level languageEnglish-Russian dictionary of computer science and programming > language
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29 managed code
код на промежуточном языке, который может быть проанализирован другими программами, например на отсутствие потенциально опасных действий. Свойство, необходимое для обмена исполняемыми файлами через Интернет. Термин широко используется Microsoft в рамках платформы.NETAnt:см. тж. managed applicationАнгло-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > managed code
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30 Vector Markup Language
"An XML-based specification for the exchange, editing, and delivery of 2-D vector graphics on the Web. An application of XML (Extensible Markup Language), VML uses XML tags and Cascading Style Sheets to create and place vector graphics, such as circles and squares, in an XML or HTML document, such as a Web page. These graphics, which are rendered in the native operating system, can include color and are editable in a variety of graphics programs." -
31 VML
"An XML-based specification for the exchange, editing, and delivery of 2-D vector graphics on the Web. An application of XML (Extensible Markup Language), VML uses XML tags and Cascading Style Sheets to create and place vector graphics, such as circles and squares, in an XML or HTML document, such as a Web page. These graphics, which are rendered in the native operating system, can include color and are editable in a variety of graphics programs." -
32 host control
An object that is native to a host application (such as Microsoft Office Word or Microsoft Office Excel) to which data binding and events have been added. Examples of host controls include Bookmark controls and ListObject controls. -
33 host item
An object that is native to a host application (such as Microsoft Office Word or Microsoft Office Excel) to which you can add host controls. Examples of host items include Document and Worksheet. -
34 PDF reflow
A process that converts a PDF file to flowing text and document elements that are native to the application being used. -
35 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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36 indigenous technology
- технология, приемлемая для местных условий
технология, приемлемая для местных условий
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
indigenous technology
Technologies employed by the native inhabitants of a country and which constitute an important part of its cultural heritage and should therefore be protected against exploitation by industrialized countries; the problem of indigenous knowledge has been discussed during the Rio Conference but it does not receive much protection under the Biodiversity Convention. Article 8 mandates that parties "respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional life styles... and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of benefits arising from them". (Source: RRDA / WRES)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
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Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > indigenous technology
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