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modern+literature

  • 121 أدب

    أَدَب \ civility: politeness. courtesy: politeness. literature: books and writing of high quality in general, including poetry and plays: modern French literature. politeness: polite behaviour.

    Arabic-English dictionary > أدب

  • 122 كتابات أدبية

    كتابات أدبيّة \ literature: books and writing of high quality in general, including poetry and plays: modern French literature. \ See Also أدب (أَدَب)‏

    Arabic-English dictionary > كتابات أدبية

  • 123 civility

    أَدَب \ civility: politeness. courtesy: politeness. literature: books and writing of high quality in general, including poetry and plays: modern French literature. politeness: polite behaviour.

    Arabic-English glossary > civility

  • 124 courtesy

    أَدَب \ civility: politeness. courtesy: politeness. literature: books and writing of high quality in general, including poetry and plays: modern French literature. politeness: polite behaviour.

    Arabic-English glossary > courtesy

  • 125 politeness

    أَدَب \ civility: politeness. courtesy: politeness. literature: books and writing of high quality in general, including poetry and plays: modern French literature. politeness: polite behaviour.

    Arabic-English glossary > politeness

  • 126 letra

    f.
    1 letter.
    2 handwriting.
    no entiendo su letra I can't read his writing o handwriting
    3 type, typeface.
    letra cursiva italic type, italics
    escriba en letra de imprenta please write in block capitals
    letra itálica italic type, italics
    letra negrita bold (face)
    4 lyrics.
    5 literal meaning.
    seguir instrucciones al pie de la letra to follow instructions to the letter
    6 bank bill, bill of exchange, letter.
    7 hand, script.
    * * *
    2 (de imprenta) character
    3 (escritura) handwriting
    4 (de canción) lyrics plural, words plural
    5 (de cambio) bill of exchange
    1 EDUCACIÓN arts (literatura) letters
    \
    a la letra to the letter
    al pie de la letra to the letter
    aprender las primeras letras to learn to read and write
    con la letra clara clearly, neatly
    la letra con sangre entra spare the rod and spoil the child
    letra por letra word for word
    ponerle a alguien unas letras to write to somebody, drop a line to somebody
    letra de cambio bill of exchange, draft
    letra de imprenta block capitals plural
    letra del tesoro treasury bond
    letra gótica Gothic script
    letra mayúscula capital letter
    letra menuda small print
    letra pequeña small print
    letra minúscula small letter
    * * *
    noun f.
    3) type
    * * *
    SF
    1) (Tip) letter

    letra bastardilla, letra cursiva — italics pl, italic type (EEUU)

    letra de imprenta, letra de molde — print

    escriba su nombre en letras de imprenta o de molde — please print your name in block letters

    letra negrilla, letra negrita — bold type, heavy type

    letra redonda — roman, roman type (EEUU)

    2) (=escritura) handwriting, writing
    3) (=sentido literal) letter, literal meaning

    atarse a la letra — frm to stick to the literal meaning

    pie 4)
    4) (Com) (=pago) instalment, installment (EEUU)

    letra bancaria — banker's draft, bank draft

    letra de cambio — bill (of exchange), draft

    5) [de canción] words pl, lyrics pl
    6) pl letras (=cultura) letters, learning sing

    primeras letras — elementary education, the three Rs

    7) pl letras (Escol, Univ) (=humanidades) arts
    * * *
    1)
    a) (Impr, Ling) letter

    la letra con sangre entra — spare the rod, spoil the child

    b) ( caligrafía) writing, handwriting
    c) letras femenino plural ( carta breve)

    sólo unas letras para decirte que... — just a few lines to let you know that...

    2) ( sentido)
    3) (Mús) ( de canción) words (pl), lyrics (pl)
    4) (Fin) tb

    letra de cambio — bill of exchange, draft

    5) letras femenino plural (Educ) arts (pl), liberal arts (pl) (AmE)

    licenciado en Filosofía y Letras — ≈arts graduate

    * * *
    = character, letter, script, sorts, sort, letter-form.
    Ex. A fixed length field is a field which has the same length, that is, contains the same number of characters in each record.
    Ex. There are only two sets of symbols whose orders are reasonably universally recognised: the letters of the Roman alphabet (either small or capitals), and Arabic numerals.
    Ex. Schoolchildren, students, and other whose native language is written in a non-Roman script may find alphabetical order according to Roman characters an almost insurmountable hurdle in the use of catalogues and indexes.
    Ex. Italic founts, which lacked small capitals, generally had about the same total number of sorts as roman because of the addition of extra ligatures and decorated (or 'swash') capitals.
    Ex. Italic founts, which lacked small capitals, generally had about the same total number of sorts as roman.
    Ex. They were used for elaborate illustrations, stylized ornaments, initial letters, and for words in large or complex letter-forms that were not available as type = Se utilizaban para ilusraciones compicadas, adornos estilizados, letras iniciales y para letras grandes o complejas que no se podían conseguir en tipos.
    ----
    * al pie de la letra = to the letter.
    * de dos letras = two-letter.
    * de puño y letra = in black and white, in handwriting.
    * dominado por la letra impresa = print-dominated.
    * filosofía y letras = arts and humanities, the, arts and letters.
    * hombre de letras = man of letters.
    * imprimir en letra realzada = print in + double density.
    * juego de letras = letter set.
    * la clave está en la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * las triquiñuelas de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * letra adornada = swash letter.
    * letra a letra = letter-perfect.
    * letra bastarda = bastarda.
    * letra bastardilla = italics.
    * letra contraccional = contraction.
    * letra cursiva = italics.
    * letra cuya impresión en papel no está completa = broken letter.
    * letra de cambio = bill of exchange.
    * letra de canción = song lyrics.
    * letra de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * letra del alfabeto = alphabet letter, alphabetic letter.
    * letra de la música = music lyrics.
    * letra del Tesoro = Treasury bill.
    * letra de madera = wood letter.
    * letra de molde = block capital, block letter.
    * letra desbordante = kerned letter.
    * letra de signatura = signature-letter.
    * letra egipcia = slab serif.
    * letra gótica = gothic type, black letter.
    * letra inicial decorada = decorated capital, swash capital.
    * letra itálica = italic fount, italic type.
    * letra, la = lyrics, the.
    * letra ligada = diagraph.
    * letra mayúscula = capital letter, upper case letter, block capital, block letter.
    * letra mecana = slab serif.
    * letra minúscula = lower case letter, small, small letter.
    * letra moderna = modern face.
    * letra negrita = bold print, bold type, bold letters.
    * letra normal = light type, light face type.
    * letra pequeñita, la = fine detail(s), fine points, the.
    * letra por letra = literatim.
    * letra romana = roman, roman type.
    * letra romana aldina = Aldine roman.
    * letra romana cursiva = sloped roman.
    * letra romana de Caslon = Caslon roman.
    * letra rota o a medio imprimir = broken letter.
    * letras adornadas = swash sorts.
    * letra saliente = kerned letter.
    * letras conjuntas = tied letters.
    * letras, las = arts, the.
    * letra versalita = small capital.
    * los detalles de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * los pormenores de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * método de ordenación letra a letra = letter by letter method, all-through method.
    * mundo de la letra impresa, el = print world, the.
    * mundo de las letras, el = world of letters, the.
    * no creerse Algo al pie de la letra = take + Nombre + with a pinch of salt.
    * ordenación alfabética letra a letra = letter by letter alphabetisation.
    * ordenación letra a letra = letter-by-letter filing, all through filing, letter by letter arrangement, all through arrangement.
    * personas con problemas de lectura de la letra impresa = print disabled people.
    * remate de una letra = serif.
    * revoltijo de letras = jumbled letters.
    * seguir Algo al pie de la letra = follow + Nombre + to the letter.
    * seguir al pie de la letra = keep + strictly to the letter.
    * sopa de letras = alphabet soup.
    * tamaño de letra = font size.
    * texto con letras grandes = large print.
    * tipo de letra = type face [typeface], typing, type font [typefont], fount, type specimen [type-specimen], fount of type.
    * uso de la letra cursiva = italicisation [italicization, -USA].
    * * *
    1)
    a) (Impr, Ling) letter

    la letra con sangre entra — spare the rod, spoil the child

    b) ( caligrafía) writing, handwriting
    c) letras femenino plural ( carta breve)

    sólo unas letras para decirte que... — just a few lines to let you know that...

    2) ( sentido)
    3) (Mús) ( de canción) words (pl), lyrics (pl)
    4) (Fin) tb

    letra de cambio — bill of exchange, draft

    5) letras femenino plural (Educ) arts (pl), liberal arts (pl) (AmE)

    licenciado en Filosofía y Letras — ≈arts graduate

    * * *
    la letra
    = lyrics, the

    Ex: The database contains 12 of the most requested songs and screens the lyrics in time with the music = La base de datos contiene 12 de las canciones más solicitadas y muestra en pantalla las letras junto con la música.

    = character, letter, script, sorts, sort, letter-form.

    Ex: A fixed length field is a field which has the same length, that is, contains the same number of characters in each record.

    Ex: There are only two sets of symbols whose orders are reasonably universally recognised: the letters of the Roman alphabet (either small or capitals), and Arabic numerals.
    Ex: Schoolchildren, students, and other whose native language is written in a non-Roman script may find alphabetical order according to Roman characters an almost insurmountable hurdle in the use of catalogues and indexes.
    Ex: Italic founts, which lacked small capitals, generally had about the same total number of sorts as roman because of the addition of extra ligatures and decorated (or 'swash') capitals.
    Ex: Italic founts, which lacked small capitals, generally had about the same total number of sorts as roman.
    Ex: They were used for elaborate illustrations, stylized ornaments, initial letters, and for words in large or complex letter-forms that were not available as type = Se utilizaban para ilusraciones compicadas, adornos estilizados, letras iniciales y para letras grandes o complejas que no se podían conseguir en tipos.
    * al pie de la letra = to the letter.
    * de dos letras = two-letter.
    * de puño y letra = in black and white, in handwriting.
    * dominado por la letra impresa = print-dominated.
    * filosofía y letras = arts and humanities, the, arts and letters.
    * hombre de letras = man of letters.
    * imprimir en letra realzada = print in + double density.
    * juego de letras = letter set.
    * la clave está en la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * las triquiñuelas de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * letra adornada = swash letter.
    * letra a letra = letter-perfect.
    * letra bastarda = bastarda.
    * letra bastardilla = italics.
    * letra contraccional = contraction.
    * letra cursiva = italics.
    * letra cuya impresión en papel no está completa = broken letter.
    * letra de cambio = bill of exchange.
    * letra de canción = song lyrics.
    * letra de imprenta = block capital, block letter.
    * letra del alfabeto = alphabet letter, alphabetic letter.
    * letra de la música = music lyrics.
    * letra del Tesoro = Treasury bill.
    * letra de madera = wood letter.
    * letra de molde = block capital, block letter.
    * letra desbordante = kerned letter.
    * letra de signatura = signature-letter.
    * letra egipcia = slab serif.
    * letra gótica = gothic type, black letter.
    * letra inicial decorada = decorated capital, swash capital.
    * letra itálica = italic fount, italic type.
    * letra, la = lyrics, the.
    * letra ligada = diagraph.
    * letra mayúscula = capital letter, upper case letter, block capital, block letter.
    * letra mecana = slab serif.
    * letra minúscula = lower case letter, small, small letter.
    * letra moderna = modern face.
    * letra negrita = bold print, bold type, bold letters.
    * letra normal = light type, light face type.
    * letra pequeñita, la = fine detail(s), fine points, the.
    * letra por letra = literatim.
    * letra romana = roman, roman type.
    * letra romana aldina = Aldine roman.
    * letra romana cursiva = sloped roman.
    * letra romana de Caslon = Caslon roman.
    * letra rota o a medio imprimir = broken letter.
    * letras adornadas = swash sorts.
    * letra saliente = kerned letter.
    * letras conjuntas = tied letters.
    * letras, las = arts, the.
    * letra versalita = small capital.
    * los detalles de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * los pormenores de la letra pequeña = the devil (is/lives) in the details.
    * método de ordenación letra a letra = letter by letter method, all-through method.
    * mundo de la letra impresa, el = print world, the.
    * mundo de las letras, el = world of letters, the.
    * no creerse Algo al pie de la letra = take + Nombre + with a pinch of salt.
    * ordenación alfabética letra a letra = letter by letter alphabetisation.
    * ordenación letra a letra = letter-by-letter filing, all through filing, letter by letter arrangement, all through arrangement.
    * personas con problemas de lectura de la letra impresa = print disabled people.
    * remate de una letra = serif.
    * revoltijo de letras = jumbled letters.
    * seguir Algo al pie de la letra = follow + Nombre + to the letter.
    * seguir al pie de la letra = keep + strictly to the letter.
    * sopa de letras = alphabet soup.
    * tamaño de letra = font size.
    * texto con letras grandes = large print.
    * tipo de letra = type face [typeface], typing, type font [typefont], fount, type specimen [type-specimen], fount of type.
    * uso de la letra cursiva = italicisation [italicization, -USA].

    * * *
    A
    1 ( Impr, Ling) letter
    aprender/saber las primeras letras to learn/know how to read and write
    la letra con sangre entra spare the rod, spoil the child
    2 (caligrafía) writing, handwriting
    tienes una letra muy clara your writing o handwriting is very clear
    no entiendo tu letra I can't read your writing o handwriting
    despacito y buena letra slowly and carefully
    (carta breve): sólo cuatro or unas letras para decirte que … just a note o just a few lines to let you know that …
    Compuestos:
    ● letra bastardilla or cursiva
    italic script, italics (pl)
    ( RPl) small print
    ● letra de molde or imprenta
    print
    escriba el nombre completo en letra de molde or imprenta please print your full name
    double letter
    Gothic script
    italic script, italics (pl)
    capital letter, uppercase letter
    con or en letras mayúsculas in capital letters, in upper case ( tech)
    lowercase letter, small letter
    con or en letras minúsculas in small letters, in lower case ( tech)
    dead letter
    ● letra negrita or negrilla
    boldface, bold type
    small print
    roman type
    B
    (sentido): la letra de la ley the letter of the law
    ateniéndonos a la letra, el texto dice que … if we read it absolutely literally, the text appears to say that …
    C ( Mús) (de canción) words (pl), lyrics (pl)
    D ( Fin) tb
    letra de cambio bill of exchange, draft
    aceptar/girar una letra to accept/present a bill of exchange o a draft
    devolver/protestar una letra to dishonor/protest a bill of exchange o a draft
    me quedan tres letras por pagar ≈ I still have three installments to pay o three payments to make
    E letras fpl ( Educ) arts (pl)
    * * *

     

    letra sustantivo femenino
    1
    a) (Impr, Ling) letter;

    letra bastardilla or cursiva italic script, italics (pl);

    letra negrita boldface, bold type;
    letra pequeña or (AmS) chica small print


    c)

    ◊ letras sustantivo femenino plural ( carta breve): solo unas letras para decirte que … just a few lines to let you know that …

    2 (Mús) ( de canción) words (pl), lyrics (pl)
    3 (Fin) tb

    me quedan tres letras por pagar I still have three payments to make
    4
    ◊ letras sustantivo femenino plural (Educ) arts (pl), liberal arts (pl) (AmE)

    letra sustantivo femenino
    1 letter
    letra de molde, print letter
    letra pequeña, small print
    2 (manera de escribir) (hand) writing: me gusta tu letra, I like your writing
    3 Mús lyrics pl: no se sabe la letra, he hasn't learnt the words
    4 Fin letra (de cambio), bill of exchange
    (de un pago aplazado) instalment: aún nos quedan varias letras por pagar, we've still got a few instalments left to pay
    5 Univ mi hermana es de Letras, my sister is studing Arts o my sister did an Arts degree
    ♦ Locuciones: al pie de la letra, literally: sigue mis instrucciones al pie de la letra, follow my instructions precisely
    ser letra muerta, to be a dead letter
    ' letra' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    A
    - B
    - C
    - cursiva
    - D
    - desojarse
    - E
    - ese
    - F
    - G
    - girar
    - H
    - I
    - J
    - K
    - L
    - M
    - minúscula
    - minúsculo
    - muda
    - mudo
    - N
    - Ñ
    - O
    - P
    - pie
    - puño
    - Q
    - R
    - S
    - T
    - tilde
    - tipo
    - trazo
    - U
    - V
    - vencer
    - vencida
    - vencido
    - vencimiento
    - W
    - X
    - Y
    - Z
    - comer
    - delta
    - descontar
    - descuento
    - desigual
    - devolver
    English:
    A
    - B
    - book
    - C
    - capital
    - carve
    - close
    - cramped
    - cursive
    - D
    - draft
    - E
    - F
    - feminine
    - G
    - H
    - handwriting
    - I
    - initial
    - italicize
    - J
    - K
    - L
    - lest
    - letter
    - lower case
    - lyric
    - M
    - manage
    - masculine
    - N
    - neat
    - O
    - P
    - print
    - q
    - R
    - read
    - S
    - salt
    - silent
    - small print
    - T
    - typeface
    - U
    - unintelligible
    - upper case
    - V
    - W
    - word
    * * *
    letra nf
    1. [signo] letter
    letra doble double letter
    2. [escritura, caligrafía] handwriting;
    escribe la carta con buena letra write the letter in neat handwriting;
    no entiendo su letra I can't read her writing o handwriting;
    mandar cuatro letras a alguien to drop sb a line;
    la letra con sangre entra spare the rod and spoil the child
    Am letra chica small print;
    letra pequeña small print
    3. [en imprenta] type, typeface
    letra bastardilla italic type, italics;
    letra capitular drop cap;
    letra cursiva italic type, italics;
    letra de imprenta [impresa] print;
    [en formulario] block capitals;
    escriba en letra de imprenta please write in block capitals;
    letra itálica italic type, italics;
    letra mayúscula capital letter, Espec upper-case letter;
    en letra(s) mayúscula(s) in capitals o capital letters, Espec in upper case;
    letra minúscula small letter, Espec lower-case letter;
    en letra(s) minúscula(s) in small letters, Espec in lower case;
    letra de molde [impresa] print;
    [en formulario] block capitals;
    letra muerta dead letter;
    letra negrita bold (face);
    letra redonda roman type;
    letra redondilla roman type;
    letra versalita small capital
    4. [texto de canción] lyrics
    5. Com
    letra (de cambio) bill of exchange;
    girar una letra to draw a bill of exchange;
    protestar una letra to protest a bill
    letra avalada guaranteed bill of exchange;
    letra del Tesoro treasury bill
    6. [sentido] literal meaning;
    nos atuvimos a la letra del contrato we abided by the contract word for word;
    seguir instrucciones al pie de la letra to follow instructions to the letter
    7. Educ
    letras arts;
    soy de letras I studied arts;
    una asignatura de letras an arts subject
    letras mixtas = secondary school course comprising mainly arts subjects but including some science subjects;
    letras puras = secondary school course comprising arts subjects only
    * * *
    f
    1 letter;
    menuda fig the fine print, Br
    the small print;
    al pie de la letra word for word
    2 de canción lyrics pl
    3
    :
    letras pl ( literatura) literature sg ; EDU arts
    4
    :
    tener buena/mala letra have good/bad handwriting
    * * *
    letra nf
    1) : letter
    2) caligrafía: handwriting, lettering
    3) : lyrics pl
    4)
    al pie de la letra : word for word, by the book
    5) letras nfpl
    : arts (in education)
    * * *
    1. (signo) letter
    la palabra "mosca" tiene cinco letras the word "mosca" has five letters
    2. (manera de escribir) handwriting
    3. (de canción) lyrics / words
    ¿entiendes la letra? do you understand the words?

    Spanish-English dictionary > letra

  • 127 moderne

    современная, -ый, -ое
    * * *
    fashionable, modern, up-to-date
    * * *
    adj. up-to-date adj. [ nåtids-] modern (fx

    literature

    ), contemporary, of today adj. fashionable adj. (dagligtale) in

    Norsk-engelsk ordbok > moderne

  • 128 VERA

    * * *
    I)
    (er; var, várum or vórum; verit), v.
    1) to be, exist; þeir menn vóru, er, there were men who;
    2) to be, happen; þat var, at hón fór brott, so it was that she went away; en er váraði, var þar búskortr, there was scarcity in the household; hvat er henni, what is the matter with her! þat var einn dag, at, it happened one day that; kann (má) v., at, it is possible, it may be that;
    3) to last; meðan þingit væri, while the Thing lasted;
    4) láta e-n v., to leave one alone (lát mik v. ok ger mér ekki illt); bað hann láta v., begged him to leave it undone, not to do it;
    5) to dwell, stay; hann bað hana vera í búð sinni, he asked her to stay in his booth; hann var á Höskuldsstöðum um nótt, he passed a night at H.;
    6) with infin., hlymr var at heyra, a clattering was to be heard; þar var at sjá, there was to be seen; v. at gera e-t, to be doing a thing; kvað hann v. at telja silfr, said he was counting the money; denoting necessity, a thing about to happen, or to be done; nú er þeim út at ganga öllum, er leyft er, now all those must go out to whom leave is given; er nú eigi Kára at varast, now there is no need to beware of K.; nú er þar til máls at taka, at, now it is to be told that; nú er at segja frá Skamkatli, now we must tell of S.;
    7) with a predicate (noun, a., or adv.); v. konungr, Jarl, biskup, to be king, earl, bishop; v. glaðr, sæll, hryggr, ungr, gamall, to be glad, happy, sad, young, old; v. vel, illa til e-s, to be well, ill-disposed towards one; þat er illa, it is sad; vera spakliga í heraði, to behave gently; orð kvað þá Vingi þats án veri, words which he had better not have said;
    8) impers., e-m er varmt, heitt, kalt, one is warm, cold;
    9) with past participles in passive sense; v. kallaðr, sagðr, tekinn, to be called, said, taken;
    10) with preps., v. af e-u, to be off, out of (v. af klæðum); v. at e-u, to be busy at; verkmenn váru at arningu, they were ploughing; to be present (þar varstu at); ek var at ok vafk, I was about weaving; þeir höfðu verit at þrjú sumur, they had been busy at it for three summers; v. eptir, to be left, remain (A. kvazt vilja v. eptir ok hvílast); v. fyrir, to lead ( see fyrir); v. til, to exist; v. um, undir, see um, undir.
    f.
    1) stay, sojourn; ef hann á sér í vá veru, if he has a corner to stay in;
    2) comfort (slíkt er válaðs v.).
    * * *
    older form vesa, the verb substantive; pres. em, ert, er, pl. erum, eruð, eru: pret. var, vart (mod. varst), var, pl. váru or vóru; a obsolete óru occurs, Sæm. (once), Orkn. 426. l. 11, Nj. 81, Thom. 28, 90, 102, 116, 150, 196, Ísl. ii. 482: pres. subj. sé, sér (Vþm. 4, 7), sé; the older form is sjá, en ek sjá, Clem. 138. l. 14; at ek sjá, … ok sé mér eigi reiðr, 145, Fms. viii. 299, x. 384, xi. 124, Eg. 127; for the forms sják, sjákk, see below: the mod. forms are sé, sért, sér (eg sé, þú sért; s ert and ert make a rhyme in Pass. 34. 5): imperat. ver, vertú; see Gramm. p. xxiii: there also occurs a subj. pres. verir, veri, Sdm. 22, Ls. 54; þatz án veri, Am. 36; skósmiðr þú verir, Hm. 126, but rarely.
    A. CHANGES AND FORMS.—Vera is an anomalous verb, which has undergone several changes:
    I. by changing s to r; of the older form there occur, the infin. vesa, pres. es, pret. vas, vast (vastu), vas; pres. subj. vesi; imperat. ves, MS. 623. 25. l. 14, 645. 6l. l. 33, 677. 40. l. 38; vestu, 623. 25, Post. (Unger) 129. l. 27, 229. l. 12; vesum, Hom. (Arna-Magn. 237) p. 214. l. 8; pres. indic. 2nd pers. est, Glúm. 372; 3rd pers. es: but no traces remain of the older form in pret. plur. indic. and subj. (váru væri, never vásu væsi). Rhymes in poets and the spelling of the oldest extant poems shew that the s form alone existed in Icel. down to about the end of the 12th century, the time of Snorri Sturluson, when the modern forms crept in probably from Norway, for there the change seems to have taken place a century or so earlier; the old Norse vellums (written in Norway or by Norsemen) are distinguished from the Icel. by their constant use of the r: the phrase ‘at upp vesandi sólu’, in N. G. L. i. 4, being the only instance of the s form in all the Norse vellums. The earliest instances extant of a rhyme to the r form are, the Ht. of Rögnvald, earl of the Orkneys; he was a native of Norway, born about A. D. 1100, and the poem was composed about A. D. 1145; another instance is ‘vara, fara’ in Fms. vii. 185, in a poem about A. D. 1140, written by an Icelander who had lived in Norway the greater part of his life, the rhyme is therefore a Norwegianism. The first instance in an Icel. poem is in the Ht. of Snorri, A. D. 1222. Instances from poets, Hallfred, Sighvat, Arnórr, and coeval poets; vesa, vísi; sás með Sygna ræsi; þági vas sem þessum; vask til Róms í háska; vastu, kosta; vas fyrir Mikkjals- messu; nú es um verk þau er vísi; bráskat þat dægr háski: from A. D. 1100–1150, Geisli, Pd., etc., svás, ræsir; esat, risnu; vasa, tysvar; vestu. freistni; vestu, traustla: on the other hand, in the poem of earl Rögvald, vera, skera; gera, vera; var, skar (twice): from later Icel. poems it is sufficient to note, erðu, fyrðum; ertú, h jarta; verðú, f orðast, Leiðarv. etc. This may sometimes serve as a test, e. g. var ek nær viðr-eign þ eirra, Grett., and skap-kers saman vera, Gísl., are impossible in the mouth of poets of the early Saga time; the verses of both these Sagas are a later composition.
    2. as to the spelling of the MSS.,—the oldest (the Arna-Magn. 677, the Eluc. 674, the Íb. etc.) use the s throughout: vellums of the next period, about A. D. 1200 (e. g. Arna-Magn. 623 and 645), use the later form sparingly, even the second hand in the Reykholts máldagi gives ‘es,’ not ‘er.’ Again, in the vellums of the middle of the 13th century, such as the Cod. Reg. of the Sæm., the Grág., and the Mork., the mod. spelling has entirely got the better of the old, and an ‘es’ only creeps in, as if unawares, from an older copy. Of the poetical literature, the Pd. alone has been preserved in a copy old enough to retain the s; all the rest have the modernised spelling, even in the rhymed syllables quoted above; such too is the case with the Cod. Reg. of the Sæm. Edda; but had that vellum been but fifty or sixty years older, the forms vesa, es, vas, etc. would now be the established spelling in Editions of these poems.
    3. on Danish and Swedish Runic stones, the 3rd pers. pret. sing. is a word of frequent occurrence; the best Danish monuments have vas, e. g. ias vas farinn vestr, Thorsen 93 and 101 (on a stone of the reign of Sweyn, died A. D. 1014). In Sweden the great majority present the later form: the so-called Ingvar stones are chronologically certain, being of the middle of the 11th century (Ingvar died A. D. 1039); there we read, ‘vas’ (twice), ‘varinn’ (once), ‘var’ (thrice, being twice spelt with ᛦ, once with ᚱ): this shews that about this time in Sweden the later or more modern form had begun to be used, but that the old was still remembered.
    II. suffixed personal pronoun or suffixed negation; em’k (tautologically ek em’k = I-am-I), emk, Ad. 1, Vþm. 8, Fms. xi. 91; ek emk, Mork. 89. l. 13, 104. l. 23, Clem. 136. l. 20, 138. l. 13; vask, I was, 133. l. 25, Mork. 89. l. 16; vark, Post. 225, v. l. 15; ek vark, Ls. 35; vestu, be thou, Clem. 129. l. 27; es þú, art thou, l. 30, 130. l. 11; sjá’k ( may I be), ek sják, Mork. 134; at sják, 189. l. 29; ek sják, Hbl. 9, Hkv. 1. 20; at ek gjarn sják, Stor.; with double kk, þó at ek sjákk, Mork. 89.
    2. a medial form, erumk, erumz, or apocopated erum, Stor. 1, Ad. 16, Hkv. 1. 25, Korm. ch. 5. 2, Ls. 35, Bragi (see senna); leið erum-k fjöll, Edda (in a verse); várumk, were to me, Am. 78.
    3. suff. neg. eru-mk-a, it is not to me, Stor. 17, Eg. (in a verse); emkat-ek, am I not I, i. e. I am not, Hbl. 34, Skm. 18, Ó. H. 192 (in a verse): er-at, es-at, or er-a, es-a, is not, passim; eru-ð, are not, Skv. 1. 42; ert-attu, thou art not, Vtkv.; vart-attu, thou wast not, Gs., Eg. (in a verse); veri-a, be not, Mork. 37. l. 8.
    4. sá’s = sá es, that is, Hallfred (Fs. 95); svá’s = svá es, so is, Fms. vii. (in a verse).
    III. the plur. eru when suffixed to words ending in r drops the initial e, and is suffixed; this spelling, which agrees with mod. Icel. pronunciation, was afterwards disused; þeir-ro, they are, Gm. 34; margir-ro, many are, Hkv. 2. 11; Æsir-ro, the Ases are, Vsp. 49; skildir-ro, shields are, 44; torogætir-ro, rare are, Korm. (in a verse); hverjar-ro, which are, Vþm. 48; langir-ro, long are, Gg.; tveir-ro, þrír-ro, fjórir-ro, two, three, four are, Edda 108; báðir-ro, both are, Mork. 169; hér-ro, here are, 234; þér-ro, ye are, MS. 686 B. 1; hryggvir-ro, id.; hver-ro, who are, Mork. 96; úvar-ro, wroth are, Gm. 53; værrom, vérrom, we are, Edda i. 526, Fms. x. 421; hverrtu [cp. North. E. wh’art’ou, lad] (hverrtú karl, who art thou, carle?), Frissb. 256. l. 8; ir-rot, ye are, Ó. H. 151.
    IV. the pres. 1st pers. em [Engl. am] has changed into er (eg er, þú ert, hann er), making the 1st and 3rd pers. uniform; this new form appears in vellums about the end of the 13th century, but the word being usually abbreviated (ē = em, eͬ = er), it is often hard to distinguish. In the Icel. N. T. and in hymns the old ‘em’ still remains in solemn language, em eg, Matth. xxvii. 24; eigi em eg, John xviii. 17; eg em hann, 5, 8, xi. 25, xv. 1, 5, Matth. xiv. 27; em eg eigi postuli, em eg eigi frjáls, 1 Cor. ix. 1; em eg orðinn, 20, 22, and passim.
    B. USAGE.—To be:
    I. to be, exist; þær sakir skal fyrst dæma, ef þær eru, if such there are, Grág. (Kb.) i. 73; eigi vóru hans jafningjar, Eg. 1; Rachel grét sonu sína, … þvi at þeir eru eigi, Hom. 49; þeir menn vóru, er þess gátu, there were men who, Nj. 90.
    2. to be, happen; þat var, at hón for brott, Nj. 51; él eitt mun vera, 198; þess sem vera vill, that which is to be, 186; ok er (is) Vagn þá fimtán vetra gamall, er þetta er, when this came to pass, Fms. xi. 97; at þessi orrosta hafi verit á öðrum degi viku, iii. 11; í þann tið var úfriðr Kristnum mönnum, Ver. 43; hvat er henni, what is the matter with her? Fms. ii. 290; hvat er þér, Atli? er þér hryggt í hug, Gkv. 3.
    3. to last; meðan þingit væri, Nj. 12; hirðit eigi at óttask píslir þeirra—þvíat stund eina eru, 623. 32; meðan líf hans var, Bret. 100; þykkir eigi vera mega svá búit, Fms. xi. 62: to remain, leave alone, láttu það vera, let that be, Flóv.
    4. to be, dwell, stay, sojourn; vask til Róms, I was at Rome, Sighvat; hann bað hana vera í búð sinni, Nj. 12; Gunnarr var á Höskuld-stöðum um nótt, passed a night there, 34, N. G. L. i. 347: so the phrase, biðja að lofa sér að vera, to ask for night-quarters, of a stranger or traveller; lofa honum að vera, to take a stranger in; honum var boðit at vera, Vápn. 23; hefi ek hér verit síðan, Nj. 45; Hallkell var þar með Otkatli, 73; þeir vildu eigi vesa hér við heiðna menn, Íb. 4; vera samvistum við e-n, Grág. ii. 80; vera við e-t, to be present at, Hom. 129: vera at, to be present; vark at þar, Glúm.: vera brottu, to be away, absent, Nj. 113; meðan ek em í brautu, 52: sagðisk eigi vita hvar þau væri, were to be found, Dipl. ii. 20; hvar ertu? slá ein var um þvert skipit, Nj. 44; hygg ek at þar hafi verit Bolli, Ld. 274; er þér hér nú minja-griprinn, Nj. 203: as with the notion of ‘towards’ a place, an irregular construction, vartú á land upp, Fas. ii. 174; meðan þeir vóru til Danmerkr, Fms. x. 104; Ribbungar höfðu ekki verit út í landit, ix. 359; verit eigi til orrostu, vii. 263, v. l.; vera á fund hans, Eg. 26.
    5. with prepp.; vera at, to be busy at (see ‘at’ A. II, p. 26, col. 2): vera fyrir, to lead (see fyrir): vera til, to exist (see til IV); eiga fjölskyldi, vandræði, um at vera, to be in straits (see um C. VII); e-m er mikit, lítið, ekki um e-t (see um C. I. 3); vera við (see við B. VIII).
    II. with a predicate:
    1. with a noun, to be so and so; vera bróðir, systir, faðir, sonr, dóttir … e-s, vera konungr, jarl, biskup …, passim; hvers son ertú?—Ek emk Kattarson, Mork. 104; ek skal þer Mörðr vera, Nj. 15: followed by a gen. ellípt., er þat ekki karla, that is not men’s (affair), 75; er þat ekki margra, ‘that is not for many,’ few are equal to that (cp. Lat. ‘non cuivis homini,’ etc.), 48.
    2. with adjectives, to be so and so, of a state or condition; vera kunnigr, Fms. x. 370; vera glaðr, sæll, hryggr, dauðr, lifandi, … ungr, gamall, to be glad …, young, old, passim; þó at ek sjákk ótignari, Mork. 89; nema ek dauðr sják, Hbl. 9; þótt ek sják einn, Mork. 134; vera kominn, to be come: so too with adverbs, vera vel, ílla … til e-s, er við e-n, to be, behave well, ill … to one, passim; or also, þat er ílla, it is sad, Nj. 70, 71; ílla er þá, fyrr væri ílla, 75, 260; drengr góðr, þar sem vel skyldi vera, when it was to be, i. e. when she wished, 147; vera spakliga í heraði, to behave gently, Sturl. iii. 143; at þú frændr þína vammalaust verir, to behave blamelessly, Sdm. 22; orð kvað hann þats án veri, words which he had better not have said, Am. 36.
    3. impers., e-t er skylt, it is incumbent, Grág.; e-m er varmt, heitt, kalt, one is warm, cold, Nj. 95; er auðit, q. v.
    4. with participles, in a passive sense; vera kallaðr, vera sagðr, tekinn, elskaðr, etc., to be called, said, taken, loved.
    5. with infin.; hlymr var at heyra, was to hear, i. e. to be heard, Am.; þar var at sjá, there was to be seen, passim.
    6. ellipt., dropping a noun or the like, denoting futurity, necessity, a thing at hand, about to happen, or to be done; ok er hér at þiggja, Hrafn, þann greiða sem þú vill, and it is now for thee, Rafn, to partake of what food thou wilt, Ísl. ii. 262; nú er þeim út at ganga öllum, er leyft er, now it is for them to go out, Nj. 200; nú er at verja sik, 83; er nú eigi Kára at varask, now there is no need to beware of K., 259; nú er at segja frá, now is to be told, 75, 259; er nú ekki fyrr frá at segja en þeir koma …, 21; er ekki um hans ferðir at tala fyrr en …, 215.
    III. irregular usages:
    1. ellipse of the infin. vera; ek skal þér Hrútr, I will [be] Hrútr to thee, Nj. 15; Gunnarr segir sér þat alvöru, G. says it [ is to be] his earnestness, 49; vil ek þá lauss máls þessa, 76; bað hann alla metta at miðri nótt, he begged all eating [ to be over] at midnight, Fms. ix. 353; þá þótti hverjum gott þar sem sat, Nj. 50; at skamt skyli okkar í meðal, 114; mun þín skömm lengi uppi, mun hans vörn uppi meðan landit er bygt, 116, 117: or also ‘var,’ ‘er’ may be understood, hann hafði hjálm á höfði, og gyrðr sverði, 70; sá ek glöggt hvat títt var,—barn at aldri, en vegit slíka hetju, a bairn in age, and to have slain such a champion! Glúm. 382: the dropping of the infin. vera is esp. freq. after the reflex. forms kveðsk, segjask, látask, þykkjask, virðask, sýnask when followed by a part. pret. or by an adjective, as also after the verbs munu, skulu,—thus, hann sagðisk kominn, he said he was come; hann lezt búinn, he made as if he was ready; hann þóttisk staddr, he thought that he was …; skal þat á þínu umdæmi, Fms. xi. 89; þess eins er mér þykkir betr, … til hvers þykkjast þessir menn færir, Hrafn. 17; mun þat harðla lítið, 21; at fátt muni manna á fótum, 20; þú virðisk okkr vaskr maðr, 23; þessi hestr sýnisk mér eigi betri en aðrir, id.
    2. an irregularity, occurring now and then, is the use of the sing. ‘er’ for plur. eru; mannföll þessi er sögð, Gullþ. 71; nú er fram komin sóknar-gögn, Nj. 242.
    IV. recipr., erusk, vórusk; viðr-gefendr ok endr-gefendr erosk lengst vinir, Hm. 40; þeir er í nánd erusk, those who are neighbours, 655 xxi. 3; þótt þau sésk eigi hjóna, though they be not man and wife, K. Þ. K. 158; ok városk góðir vinir, were good friends, Fms. xi. 39, 89; ok várusk þeir fóstbræðr, 55.
    V. as to the poët. medial form, erumk, várumk (see ek C), the following instances are from the poems of Egil: grimmt várumk hlið, the breach was cruel to me, Stor.; erumk-a leitt, it is not to me, Eg. (in a verse); erumka þokkt þjóða sinni, see sinni II; mærðar-efni erumk auð-skæf, Ad.; mjök erum(k) tregt tungu at hræra, it is hard for me to move the tongue, Stor. 1; (hence one might correct the end verse of that poem into nú ‘erumk’ torvelt, for the modernised nú ‘er mér’ torvelt); blautr erumk bergi-fótar borr, Eg. (at the end); to which add, þat erumk sennt, it is told us, Bragi; lyst várumk þess, I had a longing to, Am. 74; ván erumk, ‘a hope is to me,’ I hope, Fagrsk. 122; the phrase, títt erumk, ‘tis ready to me, Eb. (in a verse).
    VI. part., allir menn verandi ok eptir komandi, Dipl. i. 3; æ-verandi, everlasting, Hom. 107; hjá-verandi, being present, Vm. 47; nær-verandis, present; engi nær-verandis maðr, öllum lýð nær-verandis, Th. 77; klerkar ok nær-verandi leikmenn, Mar.; at upp-vesandi sólu, at sunrise, N. G. L. i. 4; verandi eigi úminnigr, being not unmindful, Fms. v. 230.

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