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  • 101 Felt

    BILLIARD CLOTH, or FELT
    The finest textile fabric made and is a woollen cloth of the beaver type. The wool is very carefully selected and then spun with great care. Expert weavers operate the looms which weave into cloths the thousands of very fine threads. The cloth is then milled so thoroughly that it is waterproof and capable of resisting the dampest atmosphere. The dye used is such that light has little effect upon it. The best merino wool is used, and when ready for use the cloth has a perfect level face, soft and smooth. Plain weave is used for the best grades and 3-shaft twill for others. Widths from 72-in. to 81-in. Cloth shrinks about 331/3 per cent from reed width to the finished width. An all-cotton billiard cloth is now being made and is meeting with much support. ———————— A wool fabric united without weaving. It is actually a sheet of wool fibre, matted into a substantial texture by the application of heat, moisture and pressure. There are many woven fabrics that are felted so heavily that it is difficult to decide whether they are woven or not, as the threads are so closely interlocked that they cannot be separated, and this fabric is stronger than a carded felt of same weight. The shrinkage of a woven felt fabric may be up to 50 per cent in both width and length. The peculiar property of felt is believed to have been known in early times, and the process of felting was used for the tents of the Tartar, as well as for articles of their clothing. It is difficult to say when felted wool was first used for hats. Hats of felt were worn in England in the Middle Ages.

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > Felt

  • 102 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

  • 103 register

    A n
    1 gen, Admin, Comm registre m ; Sch cahier m des absences ; to keep a register tenir un registre ; to enter sth in a register inscrire qch dans or sur un registre ; to take the register Sch remplir le cahier des absences ; register of births, marriages and deaths registre public de l'état civil ; missing persons' register registre des personnes disparues ;
    2 Mus, Ling, Comput, Print registre m ; lower/middle/upper register Mus registre grave/médium/aigu ;
    3 US ( till) caisse f enregistreuse ; to ring sth up on the register enregistrer qch.
    B vtr
    1 ( declare officially) [member of the public] déclarer [birth, death, marriage] ; faire immatriculer [vehicle] ; faire enregistrer [luggage] ; déposer [trademark, patent, invention] ; faire enregistrer [company] ; déclarer [firearm] ; déposer [complaint] ; to register a protest protester ;
    2 [official] inscrire [student] ; enregistrer [name, birth, death, marriage, company, firearm, trademark] ; immatriculer [vehicle] ; she has a German-registered car elle a une voiture immatriculée en Allemagne ; to be registered (as) disabled/unfit for work être officiellement reconnu handicapé/incapable de travailler ;
    3 [measuring instrument] indiquer [speed, temperature, pressure] ; ( show) [person, face, expression] exprimer [anger, disapproval, disgust] ; [action] marquer [emotion, surprise, relief] ; the earthquake registered six on the Richter scale le tremblement de terre a atteint la magnitude six sur l'échelle de Richter ;
    4 ( mentally) ( notice) remarquer ; ( realize) se rendre compte ; I registered (the fact) that he was late j'ai remarqué qu'il était en retard ; she suddenly registered that, it suddenly registered (with her) that elle s'est soudain rendu compte que ;
    5 (achieve, record) [person, bank, company] enregistrer [loss, gain, victory, success] ;
    6 Post envoyer [qch] en recommandé [letter] ; enregistrer [luggage] ;
    7 Tech [person, machine] faire coïncider [parts] ; to be registered [parts] coïncider ;
    8 Print mettre [qch] en registre [printing press].
    C vi
    1 ( declare oneself officially) [person] (to vote, for course, school) s'inscrire ; ( at hotel) se présenter ; (with police, for national services, for taxes) se faire recenser (for pour) ; ( for shares) souscrire (for à) ; to register for voting/for a course/for a school s'inscrire pour voter/à un cours/dans une école ; to register with a doctor/dentist s'inscrire sur la liste des patients d'un médecin/dentiste ;
    2 ( be shown) [speed, temperature, earthquake] être enregistré ;
    3 ( mentally) the enormity of what had happened just didn't register on ne se rendait pas compte de l'énormité de ce qui était arrivé ; his name didn't register with me son nom ne me disait rien ;
    4 Tech [parts] coïncider.

    Big English-French dictionary > register

  • 104 force

    сила; усилие; см. тж. effort; pl. ( войсковые) соединения или части; ( вооружённые) силы; вынуждать

    Air Fleet Marine forces, Atlantic — авиация морской пехоты Атлантического флота ВМС США

    Air Material force, Pacific area — армия материально-технического обеспечения ВВС США в тихоокеанской зоне

    air-combat forces, naval aviation — боевые силы авиации ВМС

    Allied Air forces, Central Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на центрально-европейском театре

    Allied Air forces, Eastern Atlantic area — объединённые ВВС НАТО в восточной части Атлантики

    Allied Air forces, Northern Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на североевропейском театре

    Allied Air forces, Southern Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на южноевропейском театре

    composite air strike force — смешанная оперативная ударная группа [соединение] ВВС

    control force per unit of normal acceleration — расход усилий (на органах управления) на единицу нормальной перегрузки [нормального ускорения]

    control system breakout force — сила [усилие] страгивания системы управления, усилие для преодоления трения покоя в проводке управления

    force due to Q — усилие, создаваемое скоростным напором

    Middle East Air forceБр. ВВС на Среднем Востоке

    Royal Auxiliary Air forceБр. вспомогательные ВВС

    stick force per «g» — градиент усилий на ручке по перегрузке

    wheel brake decelerating force — сила торможения, развиваемая колёсами

    Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > force

  • 105 marker

    Englsh-Russian aviation and space dictionary > marker

  • 106 wing

    wing n
    крыло
    winged v
    с крыльями
    air transport wing
    авиатранспортное подразделение
    all-moving wing
    управляемое крыло
    anhedral wing
    крыло с отрицательным углом поперечного ВЭ
    arrow-type wing
    стреловидное крыло
    augmentor wing
    крыло с управляемой циркуляцией
    backswept boundary layer controlled wing
    крыло с управляемым пограничным слоем
    braced wing
    расчаленное крыло
    cantilever wing
    свободнонесущее крыло
    center wing
    центроплан
    center wing section
    центроплан крыла
    clean wing
    аэродинамическое чистое крыло
    continuous wing beam
    неразрезной лонжерон крыла
    crescent wing
    серповидное крыло
    delta wing
    треугольное крыло
    design wing area
    расчетная площадь крыла
    detach the wing
    отстыковывать крыло
    dihedral wing
    крыло с положительным углом поперечного ВЭ
    elliptical wing
    эллиптическое крыло
    fixed wing
    неподвижное крыло
    flow about wing
    обтекание крыла
    folding wing
    складывающееся крыло
    folding wing aircraft
    воздушное судно со складывающимся крылом
    forward-swept wing
    крыло обратной стреловидности
    front wing spar
    передний лонжерон крыла
    gross wing area
    площадь крыла, включая подфюзеляжную часть
    gull wing
    крыло типа чайка
    high-lift devices wing
    крыло с механизацией для обеспечения большей подъемной силы
    high-lift wing devices
    высокоэффективная механизация крыла
    high wing
    высокорасположенное крыло
    infinite-span wing
    крыло бесконечного размаха
    inner wing
    центроплан
    inverted-gull wing
    крыло типа обратная чайка
    lift wing
    несущая расчалка
    low aspect wing
    крыло малого удлинения
    lower wing
    нижнее крыло
    low wing
    низкорасположенное крыло
    middle wing bar
    средний фланговый горизонт
    mid wing
    среднерасположенное крыло
    monospar wing
    однолонжеронное крыло
    movable wing
    крыло изменяемой крыло
    outer wing
    отъемная часть крыла
    over the wing
    над крылом
    pipeline to wing slat
    трубопровод подвода воздуха к предкрылку
    pivoting wing
    поворотное крыло
    rear wing spar
    задний лонжерон крыла
    rectangular wing
    прямоугольное крыло
    rigid wing
    жесткое крыло
    rocking wings
    покачивание крыльями
    rotary wing
    несущий винт
    shoulder wing
    высокорасположенное крыло
    single-bay wing
    одностоечное крыло
    single-spar wing
    однолонжеронное крыло
    slotted wing
    щелевое крыло
    steady airflow about the wing
    установившееся обтекание крыла воздушным потоком
    stressed-skin wing
    крыло с работающей обшивкой
    sweptback wing
    крыло прямой стреловидности
    sweptforward wing
    крыло обратной стреловидности
    swept wing
    стреловидное крыло
    tapered wing
    трапециевидное крыло
    torsion box wing
    крыло кессонной конструкции
    two-spar wing
    двухлонжеронное крыло
    upper wing
    верхнее крыло
    upwind wing bar
    дальний фланговый горизонт
    variable-area wing
    крыло с изменяемой площадью
    variable-geometry wing
    крыло изменяемой геометрии
    variable-incidence wing
    крыло с изменяемым углом установки
    variable-sweep wing
    крыло переменной стреловидности
    variable-swept wing
    крыло изменяемой стреловидности
    wing aeroelasticity
    аэроупругость крыла
    wing anti-icing system
    противообледенительная система крыла
    wing area
    площадь крыла
    wing aspect ratio
    относительное удлинение крыла
    wing attachment fitting
    узел крепления крыла
    wing bar
    фланговый горизонт
    wing bar lights
    огни световых горизонтов
    wing base line
    базовая линия крыла
    wing bearing capacity
    несущая способность крыла
    wing bending moment
    изгибающий момент крыла
    wing bending relief
    разгрузка крыла
    wing box
    отсек кессона крыла
    wing box panel
    панель кессона крыла
    wing buckling
    продольный изгиб крыла
    wing butting
    стыковка крыла
    wing butting wrench
    ключ для стыковки крыла
    wing chord
    хорда крыла
    wing chord line
    линия хорды крыла
    wing clearance light
    габаритный огонь крыла
    wing covering
    обшивка крыла
    wing cradle
    ложемент под крыло
    wing curvature
    кривизна крыла
    wing devices
    механизация крыла
    wing divergence
    дивергенция крыла
    wing dogtooth extension
    наплыв крыла
    wing drag
    лобовое сопротивление крыла
    wing drop
    завал на крыло
    wing dropping
    завал на крыло
    wing engine
    крыльевой двигатель
    wing extendable devices
    выдвижная механизация крыла
    wing fence
    аэродинамический гребень на крыле
    wing fillet
    зализ крыла
    wing flap
    закрылок
    wing flap control system
    система управления закрылками
    wing flaps error transmitter
    датчик рассогласования закрылков
    wing fuel tank
    топливный крыльевой бак
    wing geometric twist
    геометрическая крутка крыла
    wing heaviness
    тенденция сваливания на крыло
    wing horse
    крыльевой ложемент
    wing icing conditions
    условия обледенения крыла
    wing integral fuel tank
    топливный отсек крыла
    wing jack
    подъемник крыла
    wing jacking point
    гнездо под крыльевой подъемник
    wing joint
    разъем крыла
    wing leading edge
    носок крыла
    wing lift
    подъемная сила крыла
    wing load
    нагрузка на крыло
    wing longitudinal oscillation
    продольное колебание крыла
    wing lower surface
    нижняя поверхность крыла
    wing manhole
    люк в крыле
    wing outer panels joint
    стык консолей крыла
    wing planform
    форма крыла в плане
    wing polar
    поляра крыла
    wing pressure plotting
    распределение давления по крылу
    wing rib
    крыльевая нервюра
    wing root
    корневая часть крыла
    wing screw jack
    винтовой подъемник крыла
    wing section
    профиль крыла
    wing setting
    установка угла положения крыла
    wing setting angle
    угол заклинения крыла
    wing shape
    профиль крыла
    wing skeleton
    остов крыла
    wing slide
    скольжение на крыло
    wing slot
    щель крыла
    (для обдува) wing slot door
    створка щели крыла
    wing span
    размах крыла
    wing spar
    лонжерон крыла
    wing spar cap
    пояс лонжерона крыла
    wing split line
    линия разъема крыла
    wing spoiler system
    система крыльевых интерцептор
    wing stall sensor
    датчик критических углов атаки крыла
    wing static discharger
    статический разрядник крыла
    wing sweep angle
    угол стреловидности крыла
    wing tail fillet
    хвостовой зализ крыла
    wing taper
    сужение крыла
    wing taper ratio
    относительное сужение крыла
    wing tip
    законцовка крыла
    wing tip clearance
    запас высоты законцовки крыла
    wing tip clearance line
    линия ограничения безопасного расстояния до конца крыла
    wing torsional moment
    крутящий момент крыла
    wing torsional stiffness
    жесткость крыла на кручение
    wing torsion stiffness
    жесткость крыла на кручение
    wing trestle
    подкрыльевой козелок
    wing trim strip
    балансировочный нож на задней кромке крыла
    wing twist
    крутка крыла
    wing upper surface
    верхняя поверхность крыла
    wing variable sweep
    изменяемая стреловидность крыла
    wing walker
    сопровождающий у конца крыла
    wing walk mat
    мат на крыло
    wing walkway
    крыльевой мат

    English-Russian aviation dictionary > wing

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