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101 Felt
BILLIARD CLOTH, or FELTThe finest textile fabric made and is a woollen cloth of the beaver type. The wool is very carefully selected and then spun with great care. Expert weavers operate the looms which weave into cloths the thousands of very fine threads. The cloth is then milled so thoroughly that it is waterproof and capable of resisting the dampest atmosphere. The dye used is such that light has little effect upon it. The best merino wool is used, and when ready for use the cloth has a perfect level face, soft and smooth. Plain weave is used for the best grades and 3-shaft twill for others. Widths from 72-in. to 81-in. Cloth shrinks about 331/3 per cent from reed width to the finished width. An all-cotton billiard cloth is now being made and is meeting with much support. ———————— A wool fabric united without weaving. It is actually a sheet of wool fibre, matted into a substantial texture by the application of heat, moisture and pressure. There are many woven fabrics that are felted so heavily that it is difficult to decide whether they are woven or not, as the threads are so closely interlocked that they cannot be separated, and this fabric is stronger than a carded felt of same weight. The shrinkage of a woven felt fabric may be up to 50 per cent in both width and length. The peculiar property of felt is believed to have been known in early times, and the process of felting was used for the tents of the Tartar, as well as for articles of their clothing. It is difficult to say when felted wool was first used for hats. Hats of felt were worn in England in the Middle Ages. -
102 Empire, Portuguese overseas
(1415-1975)Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:• Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).• Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.• West Africa• Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.• Middle EastSocotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.• India• Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.• Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.• East Indies• Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas
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103 register
A n1 gen, Admin, Comm registre m ; Sch cahier m des absences ; to keep a register tenir un registre ; to enter sth in a register inscrire qch dans or sur un registre ; to take the register Sch remplir le cahier des absences ; register of births, marriages and deaths registre public de l'état civil ; missing persons' register registre des personnes disparues ;2 Mus, Ling, Comput, Print registre m ; lower/middle/upper register Mus registre grave/médium/aigu ;B vtr1 ( declare officially) [member of the public] déclarer [birth, death, marriage] ; faire immatriculer [vehicle] ; faire enregistrer [luggage] ; déposer [trademark, patent, invention] ; faire enregistrer [company] ; déclarer [firearm] ; déposer [complaint] ; to register a protest protester ;2 [official] inscrire [student] ; enregistrer [name, birth, death, marriage, company, firearm, trademark] ; immatriculer [vehicle] ; she has a German-registered car elle a une voiture immatriculée en Allemagne ; to be registered (as) disabled/unfit for work être officiellement reconnu handicapé/incapable de travailler ;3 [measuring instrument] indiquer [speed, temperature, pressure] ; ( show) [person, face, expression] exprimer [anger, disapproval, disgust] ; [action] marquer [emotion, surprise, relief] ; the earthquake registered six on the Richter scale le tremblement de terre a atteint la magnitude six sur l'échelle de Richter ;4 ( mentally) ( notice) remarquer ; ( realize) se rendre compte ; I registered (the fact) that he was late j'ai remarqué qu'il était en retard ; she suddenly registered that, it suddenly registered (with her) that elle s'est soudain rendu compte que ;5 (achieve, record) [person, bank, company] enregistrer [loss, gain, victory, success] ;8 Print mettre [qch] en registre [printing press].C vi1 ( declare oneself officially) [person] (to vote, for course, school) s'inscrire ; ( at hotel) se présenter ; (with police, for national services, for taxes) se faire recenser (for pour) ; ( for shares) souscrire (for à) ; to register for voting/for a course/for a school s'inscrire pour voter/à un cours/dans une école ; to register with a doctor/dentist s'inscrire sur la liste des patients d'un médecin/dentiste ;2 ( be shown) [speed, temperature, earthquake] être enregistré ;3 ( mentally) the enormity of what had happened just didn't register on ne se rendait pas compte de l'énormité de ce qui était arrivé ; his name didn't register with me son nom ne me disait rien ;4 Tech [parts] coïncider. -
104 force
сила; усилие; см. тж. effort; pl. ( войсковые) соединения или части; ( вооружённые) силы; вынуждатьAir Fleet Marine forces, Atlantic — авиация морской пехоты Атлантического флота ВМС США
Air Material force, Pacific area — армия материально-технического обеспечения ВВС США в тихоокеанской зоне
air-combat forces, naval aviation — боевые силы авиации ВМС
Allied Air forces, Central Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на центрально-европейском театре
Allied Air forces, Eastern Atlantic area — объединённые ВВС НАТО в восточной части Атлантики
Allied Air forces, Northern Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на североевропейском театре
Allied Air forces, Southern Europe — объединённые ВВС НАТО на южноевропейском театре
composite air strike force — смешанная оперативная ударная группа [соединение] ВВС
control force per unit of normal acceleration — расход усилий (на органах управления) на единицу нормальной перегрузки [нормального ускорения]
control system breakout force — сила [усилие] страгивания системы управления, усилие для преодоления трения покоя в проводке управления
force due to Q — усилие, создаваемое скоростным напором
Middle East Air force — Бр. ВВС на Среднем Востоке
Royal Auxiliary Air force — Бр. вспомогательные ВВС
stick force per «g» — градиент усилий на ручке по перегрузке
wheel brake decelerating force — сила торможения, развиваемая колёсами
— G force— Q force— q force— - trim force -
105 marker
сигнальный знак; указатель; ориентир; радиомаркер, маркерный (радио)маяк; маркерный приёмник; отметчик; (от) метка, см. тж. markbarometric pressure setting marker — установочная метка барометрического давления (на шкале высотомера)
maximum allowable speed marker — отметчик [указатель] максимально допустимой скорости полёта
— Z marker -
106 wing
wing nкрылоwinged vс крыльямиair transport wingавиатранспортное подразделениеall-moving wingуправляемое крылоanhedral wingкрыло с отрицательным углом поперечного ВЭarrow-type wingстреловидное крылоaugmentor wingкрыло с управляемой циркуляциейbackswept boundary layer controlled wingкрыло с управляемым пограничным слоемbraced wingрасчаленное крылоcantilever wingсвободнонесущее крылоcenter wingцентропланcenter wing sectionцентроплан крылаclean wingаэродинамическое чистое крылоcontinuous wing beamнеразрезной лонжерон крылаcrescent wingсерповидное крылоdelta wingтреугольное крылоdesign wing areaрасчетная площадь крылаdetach the wingотстыковывать крылоdihedral wingкрыло с положительным углом поперечного ВЭelliptical wingэллиптическое крылоfixed wingнеподвижное крылоflow about wingобтекание крылаfolding wingскладывающееся крылоfolding wing aircraftвоздушное судно со складывающимся крыломforward-swept wingкрыло обратной стреловидностиfront wing sparпередний лонжерон крылаgross wing areaплощадь крыла, включая подфюзеляжную частьgull wingкрыло типа чайкаhigh-lift devices wingкрыло с механизацией для обеспечения большей подъемной силыhigh-lift wing devicesвысокоэффективная механизация крылаhigh wingвысокорасположенное крылоinfinite-span wingкрыло бесконечного размахаinner wingцентропланinverted-gull wingкрыло типа обратная чайкаlift wingнесущая расчалкаlow aspect wingкрыло малого удлиненияlower wingнижнее крылоlow wingнизкорасположенное крылоmiddle wing barсредний фланговый горизонтmid wingсреднерасположенное крылоmonospar wingоднолонжеронное крылоmovable wingкрыло изменяемой крылоouter wingотъемная часть крылаover the wingнад крыломpipeline to wing slatтрубопровод подвода воздуха к предкрылкуpivoting wingповоротное крылоrear wing sparзадний лонжерон крылаrectangular wingпрямоугольное крылоrigid wingжесткое крылоrocking wingsпокачивание крыльямиrotary wingнесущий винтshoulder wingвысокорасположенное крылоsingle-bay wingодностоечное крылоsingle-spar wingоднолонжеронное крылоslotted wingщелевое крылоsteady airflow about the wingустановившееся обтекание крыла воздушным потокомstressed-skin wingкрыло с работающей обшивкойsweptback wingкрыло прямой стреловидностиsweptforward wingкрыло обратной стреловидностиswept wingстреловидное крылоtapered wingтрапециевидное крылоtorsion box wingкрыло кессонной конструкцииtwo-spar wingдвухлонжеронное крылоupper wingверхнее крылоupwind wing barдальний фланговый горизонтvariable-area wingкрыло с изменяемой площадьюvariable-geometry wingкрыло изменяемой геометрииvariable-incidence wingкрыло с изменяемым углом установкиvariable-sweep wingкрыло переменной стреловидностиvariable-swept wingкрыло изменяемой стреловидностиwing aeroelasticityаэроупругость крылаwing anti-icing systemпротивообледенительная система крылаwing areaплощадь крылаwing aspect ratioотносительное удлинение крылаwing attachment fittingузел крепления крылаwing barфланговый горизонтwing bar lightsогни световых горизонтовwing base lineбазовая линия крылаwing bearing capacityнесущая способность крылаwing bending momentизгибающий момент крылаwing bending reliefразгрузка крылаwing boxотсек кессона крылаwing box panelпанель кессона крылаwing bucklingпродольный изгиб крылаwing buttingстыковка крылаwing butting wrenchключ для стыковки крылаwing chordхорда крылаwing chord lineлиния хорды крылаwing clearance lightгабаритный огонь крылаwing coveringобшивка крылаwing cradleложемент под крылоwing curvatureкривизна крылаwing devicesмеханизация крылаwing divergenceдивергенция крылаwing dogtooth extensionнаплыв крылаwing dragлобовое сопротивление крылаwing dropзавал на крылоwing droppingзавал на крылоwing engineкрыльевой двигательwing extendable devicesвыдвижная механизация крылаwing fenceаэродинамический гребень на крылеwing filletзализ крылаwing flapзакрылокwing flap control systemсистема управления закрылкамиwing flaps error transmitterдатчик рассогласования закрылковwing fuel tankтопливный крыльевой бакwing geometric twistгеометрическая крутка крылаwing heavinessтенденция сваливания на крылоwing horseкрыльевой ложементwing icing conditionsусловия обледенения крылаwing integral fuel tankтопливный отсек крылаwing jackподъемник крылаwing jacking pointгнездо под крыльевой подъемникwing jointразъем крылаwing leading edgeносок крылаwing liftподъемная сила крылаwing loadнагрузка на крылоwing longitudinal oscillationпродольное колебание крылаwing lower surfaceнижняя поверхность крылаwing manholeлюк в крылеwing outer panels jointстык консолей крылаwing planformформа крыла в планеwing polarполяра крылаwing pressure plottingраспределение давления по крылуwing ribкрыльевая нервюраwing rootкорневая часть крылаwing screw jackвинтовой подъемник крылаwing sectionпрофиль крылаwing settingустановка угла положения крылаwing setting angleугол заклинения крылаwing shapeпрофиль крылаwing skeletonостов крылаwing slideскольжение на крылоwing slotщель крыла(для обдува) wing slot doorстворка щели крылаwing spanразмах крылаwing sparлонжерон крылаwing spar capпояс лонжерона крылаwing split lineлиния разъема крылаwing spoiler systemсистема крыльевых интерцепторwing stall sensorдатчик критических углов атаки крылаwing static dischargerстатический разрядник крылаwing sweep angleугол стреловидности крылаwing tail filletхвостовой зализ крылаwing taperсужение крылаwing taper ratioотносительное сужение крылаwing tipзаконцовка крылаwing tip clearanceзапас высоты законцовки крылаwing tip clearance lineлиния ограничения безопасного расстояния до конца крылаwing torsional momentкрутящий момент крылаwing torsional stiffnessжесткость крыла на кручениеwing torsion stiffnessжесткость крыла на кручениеwing trestleподкрыльевой козелокwing trim stripбалансировочный нож на задней кромке крылаwing twistкрутка крылаwing upper surfaceверхняя поверхность крылаwing variable sweepизменяемая стреловидность крылаwing walkerсопровождающий у конца крылаwing walk matмат на крылоwing walkwayкрыльевой мат
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