methods+development

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Public utilities, Telecommunications

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After education at King's College, London, in 1852 Preece entered the office of Edwin Clark with the intention of becoming a civil engineer, but graduate studies at the Royal Institution under Faraday fired his enthusiasm for things electrical. His earliest work, as connected with telegraphy and in particular its application for securing the safe working of railways; in 1853 he obtained an appointment with the Electric and National Telegraph Company. In 1856 he became Superintendent of that company's southern district, but four years later he moved to telegraph work with the London and South West Railway. From 1858 to 1862 he was also Engineer to the Channel Islands Telegraph Company. When the various telegraph companies in Britain were transferred to the State in 1870, Preece became a Divisional Engineer in the General Post Office (GPO). Promotion followed in 1877, when he was appointed Chief Electrician to the Post Office. One of the first specimens of Bell's telephone was brought to England by Preece and exhibited at the British Association meeting in 1877. From 1892 to 1899 he served as Engineer-in-Chief to the Post Office. During this time he made a number of important contributions to telegraphy, including the use of water as part of telegraph circuits across the Solent (1882) and the Bristol Channel (1888). He also discovered the existence of inductive effects between parallel wires, and with Fleming showed that a current (thermionic) flowed between the hot filament and a cold conductor in an incandescent lamp.

Preece was distinguished by his administrative ability, some scientific insight, considerable engineering intuition and immense energy. He held erroneous views about telephone transmission and, not accepting the work of Oliver Heaviside, made many errors when planning trunk circuits. Prior to the successful use of Hertzian waves for wireless communication Preece carried out experiments, often on a large scale, in attempts at wireless communication by inductive methods. These became of historic interest only when the work of Maxwell and Hertz was developed by Guglielmo Marconi. It is to Preece that credit should be given for encouraging Marconi in 1896 and collaborating with him in his early experimental work on radio telegraphy.

While still employed by the Post Office, Preece contributed to the development of numerous early public electricity schemes, acting as Consultant and often supervising their construction. At Worcester he was responsible for Britain's largest nineteenth-century public hydro-electric station. He received a knighthood on his retirement in 1899, after which he continued his consulting practice in association with his two sons and Major Philip Cardew. Preece contributed some 136 papers and printed lectures to scientific journals, ninety-nine during the period 1877 to 1894.

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GW / KF

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Mining and extraction technology

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A scholar of the Mining Academy in Freiberg, who in his dissertation dealt with the fineness of coal dust, Rammler started experiments in 1925 relating to firing this material. In the USA this process, based on coal, had turned out to be very effective in large boiler furnaces. Rammler endeavoured to apply the process to lignite and pursued general research work on various thermochemical problems as well as methods of grinding and classifying. As producing power from lignite was of specific interest for the young Soviet Union, with its large demand from its new power stations and its as-yet unexploited lignite deposits, he soon came into contact with the Soviet authorities. In his laboratory in Dresden, which he had bought from the freelance metallurgist Paul Otto Rosin after his emigration and under whom he had been working since he left the Academy, he continued his studies in refining coal and soon gained an international reputation. He opened up means of producing coke from lignite for use in metallurgical processes.

His later work was of utmost importance after the Second World War when several countries in Eastern Europe, especially East Germany with its large lignite deposits, established their own iron and steel industries. Accordingly, the Soviet administration supported his experiments vigorously after he joined Karl Kegel's Institute for Briquetting in Freiberg in 1945. Through his numerous books and articles, he became the internationally leading expert on refining lignite and Kegel's successor as head of the Institute and Professor at the Bergakademie. Six years later, he produced for the first time high-temperature coke from lignite low in ash and sulphur for smelting in low-shaft furnaces. Rammler was widely honoured and contributed decisively to the industrial development of his country; he demonstrated new technological processes when, under austere conditions, economical and ecological considerations were neglected.

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SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors, Textiles

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The son of a millwright, Singer was employed as an unskilled labourer at the age of 12, but later gained wide experience as a travelling machinist. He also found employment as an actor. On 16 May 1839, while living at Lockport, Illinois, he obtained his first patent for a rock-drilling machine, but he soon squandered the money he made. Then in 1849, while at Pittsburgh, he secured a patent for a wood-and metal-carving machine that he had begun five years previously; however, a boiler explosion in the factory destroyed his machine and left him penniless.

Near the end of 1850 Singer was engaged to redesign the Lerow \& Blodgett sewing machine at the Boston shop of Orson C.Phelps, where the machine was being repaired. He built an improved version in eleven days that was sufficiently different for him to patent on 12 August 1851. He formed a partnership with Phelps and G.B. Zieber and they began to market the invention. Singer soon purchased Phelps's interest, although Phelps continued to manufacture the machines. Then Edward Clark acquired a one-third interest and with Singer bought out Zieber. These two, with dark's flair for promotion and marketing, began to create a company which eventually would become the largest manufacturer of sewing machines exported worldwide, with subsidiary factories in England.

However, first Singer had to defend his patent, which was challenged by an earlier Boston inventor, Elias Howe. Although after a long lawsuit Singer had to pay royalties, it was the Singer machine which eventually captured the market because it could do continuous stitching. In 1856 the Great Sewing Machine Combination, the first important pooling arrangement in American history, was formed to share the various patents so that machines could be built without infringements and manufacture could be expanded without fear of litigation. Singer contributed his monopoly on the needle-bar cam with his 1851 patent. He secured twenty additional patents, so that his original straight-needle vertical design for lock-stitching eventually included such refinements as a continuous wheel-feed, yielding presser-foot, and improved cam for moving the needle-bar. A new model, introduced in 1856, was the first to be intended solely for use in the home.

Initially Phelps made all the machines for Singer. Then a works was established in New York where the parts were assembled by skilled workers through filing and fitting. Each machine was therefore a "one-off" but Singer machines were always advertised as the best on the market and sold at correspondingly high prices. Gradually, more specialized machine tools were acquired, but it was not until long after Singer had retired to Europe in 1863 that Clark made the change to mass production. Sales of machines numbered 810 in 1853 and 21,000 ten years later.

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SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Recording

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He graduated from The Queen's College with a BA in 1915 and an MA in 1918. He was an instructor and lecturer in the Royal Navy in 1915–19. He became an administrative officer with the Board of Education until 1938, and continued his work in the British Civil Service in the Ministry of Transport until 1949. From 1924 to 1938 he was Technical Adviser, and from 1953 Technical Editor, with Gramophone, a publication catering for the record-and equipment-buying public. He brought a mathematical mind to the problems of gramophone reproduction and solved the geometrical problem of obtaining a reasonable approximation to tangential tracking across the surface of a record even though the soundbox (or pick-up) is carried by a pivoted arm. Later he tackled the problem of horns, determining that a modified exponential horn, even with a bent axis, would give optimal reproduction by a purely acoustic system. This development was used commercially during the 1930s. Wilson was for a time a member of the School Broadcasting Council and developed methods for improving subjective listening tests for evaluation of audio equipment. He was also deeply involved in the long-playing record system used for Talking Books for the Blind. He had a life-long interest in spiritualist matters and was President of the Spiritualist National Union from 1950 to 1953 and Chairman of the Psychic Press from 1951.

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   1) All Human Complex Problem Solving Is Creativity

   Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Models of Creative Association

   Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)

   3) Creative Innovation and Social Independence

   There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)

   4) Ego Strength and Emotional Stability among Creative Geniuses

   he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)

   5) Its Mundane Character

   he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)

   6) Mozart's Musical Ideas Came to Him in Polished Form

   From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)

   7) Scientific Theories and Works of Art Alike Originate in Fantasy

   Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)

   8) Self- Esteem and Creative Expression

   The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)

   9) Stages in Creative Problem- Solving

   In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)

    10) The Bisociative Pattern of the Creative Synthesis

   he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)

    11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder

   Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)

    12) The Inner Life of the Creative Process

   New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)

    13) The Problem of What Impels the Creative Person

   [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....

   Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)

    14) Theories of Creative Thinking

   A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....

   Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

. кроме; наряду с; помимо

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Molecular-orbital calculations provide detailed orbital shapes and orbital energies in addition to [or ( to go) along with] the qualitative results from symmetry considerations.

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This technique is used as an adjunct to other spectrometric methods in the identification of...

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In addition to... the tank contains 15 litres of water.

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 The gravitational acceleration, g, appears in this equation in addition to the parameters defined before.

 Hot metal requires safety considerations over and above the actual duty requirements.

 Over and beyond this, we have long-range plans for additional modernization of our steel operations.

 Increased use of computational procedures as an adjunct to testing would be expected to accelerate the development of improved mixer designs.

 Cholesteric liquid crystals were applied to the working surface for temperature-flow visualization as a backup to the thermocouple temperature measurements.

. создавать волну; создаваться

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The repulsion between two electrons comes about from the exchange of photons.

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An earthquake is generated (or develops, or occurs) when two blocks...

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The potential appearing across the output terminal is...

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These forces arise from the displacement of the aileron.

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The methylamines are widely distributed in nature where they arise probably as the result of decomposition of...

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The strains that are brought about in steel during the hardening process...

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Planets may come into being (or existence, or may result) when small planetesimals fall together.

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Above 1000°F another process is coming into play.

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The pipe developed a leak ( в трубе возникла течь).

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Under such conditions, it is possible that a crack may develop in a furnace.

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All tools develop ( во всех инструментах возникают) residual internal stresses.

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Under these conditions a bias will be developed because of the flow of electrons from grid to ground.

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If a leak occurs...

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Problems invariably occur which call for...

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When life first originated...

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A wave originating at point can reach any of the several detectors.

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No known meteorites seem to have originated on the Moon.

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A model of this type can be changed many times during the construction as new problems present themselves.

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The temperature at which the disorder sets in is a function of...

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Chemistry grew out of the black magic of the dark ages and the alchemy of the middle ages.

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New methods for seeking out genetic loci are emerging.

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This definition came about because it simplified the study of control systems.

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A dispute which ensued between the two groups...

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These forces are generated in the earth's interior.

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Shear is produced in columns by () variation in...

II

. появляться

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Ultimately, a molecule similar to modern catalase came into existence.

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Brain tumours are not likely to arise from a mature neuron.

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Planets may result [or come into being (or existence)] when small planetesimals fall together.

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As a result there occurs what is known as the Cerenkov effect.

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These craters date back to a period of...

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Planets may evolve into existence when...

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Interest in developing... goes back to the 1950s.

III

. в связи с этим возникает вопрос

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Such forces occur when...

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In our galaxy, supernovae occur once every 30 years or so.

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A complication has cropped up.

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Three questions might come to mind about the properties of...

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 Several problems have arisen during the course of the work which have required system development.

 Did the Neolithic of southern Greece really come into being as abruptly as it now appears it did?

 To troubleshoot a scale system problem, first determine in which scale system element the problem originates.

— а следовательно, возникает вопрос

— в связи с этим... сразу же возникает вопрос, насколько

— возник ряд трудностей, связанных с

— возникает желание

— возникает ряд вопросов

— возникать в результате того, что

— возникать в результате

— возникать из желания

— возникать по следующей причине

— возникают трудности

— возникли непредвиденные трудности

— возникли сомнения относительно

— если позднее возникнет необходимость в таком

— если такая необходимость возникнет

— необходимость в... возникает из-за

— никаких вопросов в этом отношении не возникло

— однако при этом возникло две проблемы

— особые трудности возникают при

— пожар возник из-за

— при этом неизбежно возникает проблема

— работа возникла в связи с

— случайные условия, возникающие при

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The combustible gases are continuously evolved (or emitted) from the surface.

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Turpentine, the volatile portion of the gum that exudes from incisions in trunks of living pine trees...

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An exothermic reaction is a reaction of transformation during which heat is liberated.

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Considerable heat is released (or evolved) during the fermentation.

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Adding benzene to such a mixture raises the freezing point and ice separates out.

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These enzymes are secreted by the labial glands.

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= stretching bands are prominent at 1475 cm^-1.

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Of the known separation methods, gas chromatography stands out as the most mature in development.

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Certain of these groups of compounds stand out as being much more active than others.

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Two other bright features stand out on the surface of Venus.

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— выделяться среди... своим

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The combustible gases are continuously evolved (or emitted) from the surface.

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Turpentine, the volatile portion of the gum that exudes from incisions in trunks of living pine trees...

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An exothermic reaction is a reaction of transformation during which heat is liberated.

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Considerable heat is released (or evolved) during the fermentation.

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Adding benzene to such a mixture raises the freezing point and ice separates out.

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These enzymes are secreted by the labial glands.

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= stretching bands are prominent at 1475 cm^-1.

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Of the known separation methods, gas chromatography stands out as the most mature in development.

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Certain of these groups of compounds stand out as being much more active than others.

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Two other bright features stand out on the surface of Venus.

. значительно зависеть от; не зависеть от; обусловливаться; от которого зависит

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An understanding of... is contingent on a knowledge of...

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The choice of buffer is dictated by the values of the various dissociation constants.

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Such methods must rely on the development of techniques that...

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The length and weight of the drag rope are functions of the size of the balloon.

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The location of the base line is counting-rate dependent (зависит от скорости учёта).

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The length of the casing is dependent (or depends) (up)on the delay factor.

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The plasma volume is determined by this equilibrium.

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The material of the electrode is governed by the nature of the material to be separated.

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The vigour of the reaction is governed by the proportion of chromic acid.

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The decision lies with the management.

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The monomeric frequency is strongly solvent dependent (зависит от растворителя).

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Here h₀ is temperature dependent.

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The direction of motion of these molecules depends on the sign of the detuning of the laser frequency.

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The properties of clay materials are controlled by at least five major factors.

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The understanding of the structures of chemical compounds hinges on the understanding of the electronic configuration of the elements.

• Уделялось мало внимания... - Little attention has been paid to...

• В данной главе мы уделим некоторое внимание ( чему-л). - In this chapter we shall devote some attention to...

• В данном обсуждении внимание будет сконцентрировано на... - In the present discussion, attention will be focused on...

• В последние годы большое внимание было уделено... - Much attention has been paid in recent years to...

• В этой главе основное внимание будет направлено на... - In this chapter we will direct most of the attention toward...

• Важным моментом, на который здесь следует обратить внимание, является... - The important thing to observe here is that...

• Внимание к данной тематике увеличилось в связи с развитием... - The subject has received increased attention with the development of...

• Внимание читателя привлекается к тому факту, что... - The reader's attention is drawn to the fact that...

• Временно не принимая во внимание это усложнение, мы можем сказать, что... - Disregarding this complication for the moment, we may say that...

• Далее мы уделим некоторое внимание (вопросу и т. п.)... - We shall give some further attention to...

• Действительно последовательная теория должна принимать во внимание (эффект, параметры и т. п.). - A comprehensive theory must account for...

• Для простоты мы начнем с того, что сосредоточим наше внимание на... - For simplicity, we start by restricting our attention to...

• Затем мы переключаем наше внимание на доказательство, что... - We turn our attention next to proving that...

• Здесь мы, конечно, ограничиваем круг нашего внимания... - Here we axe, of course, restricting attention to...

• Здесь принимается во внимание тот факт, что... - This takes account of the fact that...

• Мало внимания уделялось... - Little attention has been given to...

• Мы могли бы ограничить свое внимание... - We may restrict our attention to...

• Мы не уделили особого внимания... - We have not paid much attention to...

• Мы привлекаем внимание к тому факту, что... - We call attention to the fact that...

• Мы просто хотим привлечь внимание к следующему факту... - Let us merely call attention to one point:...

• Мы снова сконцентрируем наше внимание на... - We will again focus our attention on...

• Мы уже привлекали внимание к... - We have already called attention to...

• На практике, следовательно, основное внимание уделяется... - In practice, therefore, the major concern is to...

• На этом этапе мы хотим привлечь внимание к тому факту, что... - At this point, we wish to call attention to the fact that...

• Наконец, мы обратим наше внимание на... - Finally, we turn our attention to...

• Начиная с этого момента, мы сосредоточим наше внимание... - From now on, we restrict our attention to...

• Недавно большое внимание было уделено... - Recently, considerable attention has been devoted to...

• Недостаточное внимание было уделено... - Not enough attention has been paid to...

• Однако при вычислении величины W мы должны принять во внимание тот факт, что... - In computing W, however, we must take into account the fact that...

• Особое внимание будет уделено... - Special attention will be given to...

• Особое внимание будет уделяться... - Particular attention will be given to...

• Очень мало внимания уделялось... - Very little attention has been paid to...

• После этого внимание фокусируется на... - Thereafter attention focuses on...

• Прежде чем..., необходимо уделить серьезное внимание этим и другим вопросам. - These and other questions need to be given serious attention before...

• При обсуждении (данной проблемы и т. п.) мы принимаем во внимание лишь... - In discussing..., we are interested only in...

• Ранние исследователи сосредоточивали свое внимание на... - Early investigators focused their attention on...

• Следует уделить внимание методам... - Attention should be given to methods of...

• Следует уделить внимание тому факту, что... - Attention should be paid to the fact that...

• Должно быть принято во внимание следующее:... - The following must be taken into account:...

• Смит [1] привлек вн имание к тому факту, что... - Smith [1] has drawn attention to the fact that...

• Среди прочих возможностей, серьезное внимание будет уделено... - Among other possibilities, serious consideration has been given to...

• Существуют два случая, когда это должно быть принято во, внимание. - There are two situations where this has to be taken into account:

• Существуют четыре причины, почему надо уделить внимание... - There are four reasons for devoting attention to...

• Тем не менее, необходимо уделить внимание... - Nevertheless, attention needs to be paid to...

• Теперь мы сосредоточим наше внимание на (задаче, проблеме и т. п.)... - At present we will confine our attention to...

• Теперь обратим наше внимание на случай... - We now turn our attention to the case of...

• Особое внимание должно быть уделено... - Close attention must be given to...

• Читатель должен обратить особенное внимание на то, что... - The reader must observe carefully that...

• Читатель должен принять во внимание, что... - The reader should appreciate that...

• Чтобы ответить на этот вопрос, мы должны принять во внимание, что... - То answer this question, we must take into account that...

• Чтобы принять во внимание эту связь, напомним, что... - In order to appreciate this connection let us recall that...

• Чтобы упростить ситуацию, мы сосредоточим наше внимание... - То simplify matters we confine our attention to...

• Эти исследователи также привлекли внимание к... - These workers have also drawn attention to...

• Это вынуждает нас уделить серьезное внимание ( чему-л). - This compels us give serious attention to...

• Это можно принять во внимание по следующей причине. - This may be appreciated from the following argument.

• Видно, что это обеспечивает подходящую основу для... - This apparently provides a suitable basis for...

• Данное свойство является основой одного метода нахождения... - This property provides one method of determining...

• Идея, лежащая в основе этого, состоит в том, что... - The underlying idea is that...

• Как мы увидим далее, данная теорема является основой для... - This theorem, as we shall see, is the basis of...

• Качественно это можно объяснить на основе... - Qualitatively, this can be explained on the basis of...

• Лежащие в основе (этого) идеи настолько просты, что... - The ideas involved here are so simple that...

• На основе данного факта мы строим... - This fact is the foundation on which we build...

• На основе данных результатов давайте теперь оценим... - On the basis of these results, let us now estimate...

• На этой основе мы определяем... - On this basis, we define...

• Нижеследующая теорема является основой для дальнейших приложений. - The next theorem is basic to the applications that follow.

• Основа данного утверждения находится в... - The basis for this assertion lies in...

• От читателя требуется обладать знаниями, ненамного превосходящими основы алгебры и тригонометрии. - Few prerequisites are needed apart from basic algebra and trigonometry.

• Понятие предела является основой для... - The limit is the basis for all calculus problems.

• Следующий очень важный результат является основой для... - The following very important result is the basis for.

• Существенная идея, лежащая в основе этих утверждений, состоит в том, что... - The essential idea underlying these statements is that of...

• Тем не менее, развитые нами методы обеспечивают основу (= дают основание) для... - However, the methods we have developed provide a basis for...

• Теоретической основой этого является... - The theoretical basis for this is...

• Уравнение (4) часто используется как основа для вычислений... - Equation (4) is often used as a basis for the calculation of...

• Эти уравнения положены в основу теории... - These equations form the basis of the theory of...

• Это обеспечивает надежную основу для развития. - This provides a sound basis for development.

•..., что и следовало ожидать. -..., which was to be expected.

• Безусловно, это следует сделать точно, однако, в основном, это означает, что... - This has to be made precise of course, but essentially it means that...

• В заключение следует доказательство (i). - Finally, (i) is proved as follows.

• В общем случае следует ожидать, что... - In general it should be anticipated that...

• В основном мы следуем процедуре... - In essence we follow the procedure of...

• В результате следует заключить, что... - Consequently, one must conclude that...

• В то же самое время следует помнить, что... - At the same time it must be remembered that...

• Вторым моментом, который следует помнить, является... - A second point to notice is that...

• Данная теорема следует непосредственно из... - This theorem is a direct corollary of...

• Данное утверждение немедленно следует из... - The statement follows at once from...

• Данный результат последует немедленно, если мы сможем показать, что... - The result will follow immediately if we can show that...

• Доказательство следует почти немедленно из определения... - The proof is almost immediate from the definition of...

• Если это тот самый случай, то отсюда следует... - This being the case, it follows that...

• Здесь мы будем следовать исторической хронологии развития. - The historical order of development will be followed here.

• Из данного обсуждения не следует делать вывод, что... - It should not be inferred from this discussion that...

• Из последнего условия следует, что... - Prom the latter condition it follows that...

• Из предыдущего результата немедленно следует тот факт, что... - An immediate corollary of the above result is the fact that...

• Из предыдущих результатов следует, что... - It follows from the foregoing results that...

• Из простых геометрических соображений следует, что... - It follows from simple geometrical considerations that...

• Из симметрии в данном случае очевидно следует, что... - In this case it is obvious from symmetry that...; Prom symmetry it is obvious that...

• Из этого следует... - This implies...; It follows that...

• Из этого уравнения очевидным образом следует, что... - It is evident from this equation that...

• Как следует из теоремы 1... - It follows from Theorem 1 that...

• Наиболее просто следовать этому методу в случае... - The procedure is most simply followed for the case of...

• Наконец, следует не забывать, что... - Finally, one must not forget that...

• Наше доказательство близко следует рассуждениям статьи Иванова [2]. - Our proof of Theorem 2 follows the arguments in Ivanov [2] closely.

• Не следует забывать, что... - It should be remembered that...

• Не следует заключать, что... - It is not to be inferred that...

• Немедленным следствием теоремы 1 является следующее. - An immediate consequence of Theorem 1 is the following.

• Однако (отсюда) не следует, что... - It does not follow, however, that...

• Однако на данном этапе следует отметить, что... - The point to notice at this stage, however, is that...

• Однако следует не забывать, что... (= Однако не следует забывать, что... ) - It should not be forgotten, however, that...

• Однако следует сказать, что... - However, it should be said that...; It has to be said, however, that...

• Однако следует также заметить, что... - It should also be noted, however, that...

• Отсюда будет следовать, что... - This will yield...

• Отсюда немедленно следует, что... - It follows immediately that...

• Отсюда не обязательно следует, что... - It does not necessarily follow that...

• Отсюда следует возрастание... - This involves an increase in...

• Отсюда следует уравнение, связывающее эти две плотности... - Hence follows an equation relating the two densities: (...).

• Отсюда также следует, что... - It also follows that...

• Очевидно, что этот ответ обязан следовать из того факта, что... - The answer must obviously be sought in the fact that...

• Проделывая это, следует помнить, что... - In doing so, it is well to bear in mind that...

• С другой стороны, возможно не следует... - On the other hand, it may not be necessary to...

• Следует (= стоит) отметить... - It is worthwhile to say that...; It should be noted that...

• Следует быть осторожным при использовании этой формулы. - One must be careful in using this formula.

• Следует вспомнить... - It will be recalled...

• Следует обратить внимание на... - It is noteworthy...

• Следует ожидать, что... - It is to be expected that...

• Следует отметить, что... -It is worth noticing that...

• Следует понимать, что... - It is to be understood that...

• Следует проводить различие между... - A distinction needs to be drawn between...

• Следует рассмотреть... - Consideration should be given to...

• Следует сделать еще одно замечание. - One further comment is in order; One further comment should be made.

• Следует уделить внимание методам... - Attention should be given to methods of...

• Следует уделить внимание тому факту, что... - Attention should be paid to the fact that...

• Следует уделять должное внимание... - Due attention should be given to...

• Следует указать... - It should be pointed out...

• Следует, однако, отметить, что... - It is fair to remark, however, that...

• Так как величина х произвольна, отсюда следует, что... - Since х is arbitrary, it follows that...

• Теперь из формы функции g(х) очевидно следует, что... - Now it is obvious from the form of the function g(x) that...

• То, что данное решение является единственным, следует из... - That this solution is unique follows from...

• То, что это справедливо, следует немедленно из... - That this is true follows at once from...

• Тождество (З) легко следует из соотношений (4) и (5). - The identity (3) follows easily from (4), (5).

• Это следует из предположения относительно существования... - This is a consequence of assuming the existence of...

• Это следует из рассуждения, которое мы... - It is for this reason that we have...

• Это следует предотвратить (чем-л). - This must be prevented by...

• Это совершенно очевидно следует из факта, что... - This is at once obvious from the fact that...

United Nations Environment Program, UNEP, UN program that coordinates UN environmental activities and helps developing countries in implementing good policies from an environmental standpoint and encourages sustainable development using sound environmental methods