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41 Welte, Edwin
SUBJECT AREA: Recording[br]b. 1876 Germanyd. after 1925[br]German instrument maker who developed piano-music recording methods for reproducing pianos.[br]He was the third generation of the Freiburg (Germany) firm of M.Welte \& Soehne, music box and orchestrion manufacturers, founded in 1832, and was made a partner in 1901. He was the driving force behind the development and refinement of the reproducing piano, which had an upper-class market from 1905 to c. 1925. With his partner and brother-in-law Karl Bockisch, he also developed recording methods that made it possible to distribute perforated paper rolls representing a reasonably accurate representation of the performance of famous soloists. This is a principle for recording and replay that is totally different from the mechanical recording principle, and at that time the quality was generally regarded as higher than that of mechanical reproduction. However, because of the possibilities of editing, the source value may be less certain. Welte's contribution was the first commercial use of a coded representation of live performances. The Welte patents were licensed to several other player-piano manufacturers.[br]BibliographyGerman patent no. 162,708 (controlling the dynamics of reproduction).Further ReadingQ.D.Bowers, 1972, Encyclopedia of Automatic Musical Instruments, New York: Vestal Press, pp. 319–38 (a good if somewhat uneven account of the Welte involvement in the reproduction of recorded sound).GB-N -
42 planning
n- adaptive planningto introduce planning in the economy — вводить / внедрять планирование в экономику
- advanced planning
- aggregate planning
- agricultural planning
- annual planning
- broad-brush planning
- central planning
- centralized planning
- comprehensive planning
- contingency planning
- development planning
- econometric methods of planning
- economic planning
- elaborate planning
- family planning
- financial planning
- forward planning
- indicative planning
- initiative planning
- integrated economic and social development planning
- joint planning
- land-use planning
- local-level planning
- long-range planning
- long-term planning
- management planning
- manpower planning
- market planning
- military planning
- national planning
- national-scale planning
- nationwide planning
- operational planning
- perspective planning
- policy planning
- political planning
- pre-disaster planning
- preliminary planning
- production planning
- program planning
- project planning
- regional planning
- routine planning
- scientific basis of planning
- scientific planning
- scope of planning
- sectoral planning
- short-range planning
- short-term planning
- social aspect of economic planning
- social planning
- socio-economic planning
- state planning
- strategic planning
- systematic planning
- systems planning
- techniques of planning
- technological planning
- technology planning
- territorial planning
- town and country planning
- war planning -
43 convention
звичай; з'їзд; конвент; законодавчі збори; конвенція, міжнародна угода; прийняте правилоConvention against Discrimination in Education — Конвенція про боротьбу з дискримінацією в галузі освіти
Convention against Illicit Traffick in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances — Конвенція про заборону незаконного обігу наркотичних і психотропних речовин
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment — Конвенція проти застосування тортур та інших видів брутального, негуманного і принизливого поводження або покарання
Convention Banning Modification of the Environment for Military Purposes — Конвенція про заборону впливу на природне середовище у військових цілях
Convention Concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value — Конвенція стосовно рівної винагороди чоловікам і жінкам за рівноцінну працю (1953 р.)
Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes — Конвенція з мирного врегулювання міжнародних спорів
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic of Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others — Конвенція про викорінення торгівлі людьми та експлуатації людей з метою проституції (1949 р.)
Convention of International Civil Aviation — (Chicago, 1944) Конвенція про міжнародну цивільну авіацію (Чикаго, 1944 р.)
Convention on Consent to Marry, Minimum Age for Marriage and the Registration of Marriages — Конвенція про згоду на укладання шлюбу, мінімальний вік для укладання шлюбу і реєстрацію шлюбів (1962 р.)
Convention on Consular Relations — (Vienna, 1963) Конвенція про консульські відносини (Відень, 1963 р.)
Convention on Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons — Конвенція стосовно злочинів проти осіб, які охороняються міжнародним правом
Convention on International Carriage by Air — ( 1929) Конвенція про міжнародні повітряні перевезення (1929 р.)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species — Конвенція про міжнародну торгівлю видами тварин і рослин, яким загрожує зникнення
Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft — ( 1963) Конвенція про злочини та деякі інші діяння, здійснені на борту літальних апаратів (1963 р.)
Convention on Precautionary Arrest of Aircraft — ( 1933) Конвенція про попередження арешту літальних апаратів (1933 р.)
Convention on Private International Law — Конвенція про міжнародне приватне право, Кодекс Бустаманте
Convention on the Ban of Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and Their Annihilation — Конвенція про заборону розробки, виробництва, накопичення і застосування хімічної зброї та про її знищення
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women — Конвенція про усунення всіх форм дискримінації жінок
Convention on the International Recognition of Rights in Aircraft — ( 1948) Конвенція про міжнародне визнання прав на літальні апарати (1948 р.)
Convention on the Laundering, Search, Apprehension and Confiscation of Earnings Gained by Illegal Methods — ( 1990) Конвенція про відмивання, пошук, арешт та конфіскацію доходів, одержаних злочинним шляхом ( 1990 року)
Convention on the Law of Treaties — (Vienna, 1969) Конвенція про договірне право (Відень, 1969)
Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity — Конвенція про незастосування строку давності до воєнних злочинів і злочинів проти людства
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide — Конвенція про попередження злочину геноциду і покарання за нього
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons and on Their Destruction — Конвенція про заборону розробки, виробництва і накопичення бактеріологічної ( біологічної) і токсинної зброї і про її знищення
Convention on the Prohibition of the Use of Nuclear and Thermonuclear Weapons — Конвенція про заборону застосування ядерної і термоядерної зброї
Convention on the Protection of the Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families — Конвенція про захист прав робітників-іммігрантів та членів їхніх сімей
Convention on the Recognition of Foreign Arbitral Awards — Конвенція про визнання арбітражних рішень іноземних держав
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes — ( 1965) Конвенція про вирішення спорів щодо інвестицій ( 1965)
Convention Relating to the Treatment of Prisoners of War — Конвенція стосовно поводження із військовополоненими
- convention countryConvention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War — Конвенція стосовно захисту цивільних осіб під час війни
- convention document
- convention of the Constitution
- convention of the constitution
- Convention on Prescription
- Convention on the High Seas
- convention priority
- convention refugee
- convention registration mark -
44 department
1) структурное подразделение, административный орган (министерство, департамент, управление, отдел)2) секция (в торговом предприятии)3) функциональный отдел (напр. кадров, финансов)4) факультет (университета) -
45 division
1) деление, разделение; распределение2) разногласие, расхождение во мнениях3) отдел, раздел; подразделение [филиал] компании, группа подразделений; сектор экономики -
46 department
n1) отдел; отделение; подразделение; служба2) департамент; управление; амер. министерство, ведомство
- accounting department
- accounts department
- administrative department
- advice department
- advertising department
- analysis department
- appeals department
- audit department
- auditing department
- auxiliary department
- bank department
- bank trust department
- bespoke department
- billing department
- bond department
- bookkeeping department
- branch department
- business department
- cash department
- certification department
- claims department
- collection department
- common service department
- contract department
- cost department
- coupons paying department
- custody department
- delivery department
- deposit department
- design department
- development department
- discount department
- distribution department
- drafting department
- employees' department
- employment department
- engineering department
- examining department
- examination department
- exchange department
- executive department
- export department
- field service department
- filing department
- finance department
- finance-and-accounts department
- finance-and-economy department
- foreign exchange department
- forwarding department
- functional department
- general accounting department
- general bookkeeping department
- general service department
- goods department
- government department
- indirect department
- information department
- inquiry department
- inspection department
- internal audit department
- inventory department
- labour and wages department
- law department
- leased department
- legal department
- lost and found department
- maintenance department
- manufacturing department
- manufacturing engineering department
- marketing department
- marking department
- materials department
- merchandise development department
- methods and procedures department
- new business department
- nonproductive departments
- operating department
- operational department
- order department
- organization department
- outpatients' department
- packing department
- patent department
- payroll department
- personnel department
- planning department
- preproduction department
- pricing department
- process department
- processing department
- procurement department
- production department
- production control department
- production scheduling and control department
- promotion department
- protocol department
- publication department
- publicity department
- purchasing department
- quality control department
- receiving department
- record department
- requisitioning department
- Revenue Department
- sales department
- sales order department
- savings department
- scheduling department
- securities department
- selling department
- service department
- shipping department
- shop-training department
- staff department
- staff training department
- standards department
- State Department
- statistics department
- stock department
- storage department
- stores department
- subcontractors department
- supply department
- technical department
- thrift department
- traffic department
- training department
- transport department
- transportation department
- trust department
- visa department
- wages department
- work study department
- Department of Agriculture
- Department of Commerce
- Department of Economic Affairs
- Department of Health, Education and Welfare
- Department of Industry
- Department of Justice
- Department of Labor
- Department of Overseas Trade
- Department of State
- Department of the Interior
- Department of the Navy
- Department of the Treasury
- Department of Transportation
- establish a department
- make up a department
- reequip a departmentEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > department
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47 improvement
1. n часто улучшение; усовершенствованиеa radical improvement in the international situation — радикальное оздоровление международной обстановки
to show a great improvement — стать несравненно лучше, значительно улучшиться
improvement change — изменение, направленное на улучшение
2. n амер. удобства3. n амер. перестройка, перестановка4. n амер. с. -х. мелиорация5. n амер. эк. повышение6. n амер. гидр. регулированиеСинонимический ряд:1. development (noun) amelioration; amendment; amplification; betterment; correction; development; enhancement; growth; increase; increment; melioration; progress; upgrading2. enlightenment (noun) enlightenment -
48 control engineering
1. техника автоматического управления2. разработка систем управленияEnglish-Russian big polytechnic dictionary > control engineering
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49 Birdseye, Clarence
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 9 December 1886 Brooklyn, New York, USAd. 7 October 1956 USA[br]American inventor of the fast-freezing method of food preservation.[br]Clarence Birdseye went to high school at Montclair in New Jersey, and from there to Amherst College between 1906 and 1910. He became a field naturalist on the US Department of Agriculture's survey of 1910 to 1912, and during the following five years worked as a fur trader. He was the Purchasing Agent for the US Navy Corps between 1917 and 1919, and acted as Assistant to the President of the US Fisherman's Association between 1920 and 1922.Birdseye was a keen fisherman, and during his time in Labrador learnt how to fast-freeze his catch in the wind. He formed the Birdseye Seafood Company in 1923 and pioneered the development of quick-freezing methods for the preservation of dressed seafood. His first company went bankrupt, but he quickly formed the General Seafoods Corporation. He filed his first patent in 1924 for the plate freezer, and in the late 1920s developed the double belt freezer. In 1929 Birdseye's company was bought out for $22 million, Birdseye himself receiving $1 million. He was an active member of the American Fisherman's Society, the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Society of Mammalogists and the Institute of Food Technologists.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsNutrition Foundation Stephen M.Babcock Award 1949.Further ReadingW.H.Clark and J.Moynahan, Famous Leaders of Industry (gives a brief account of Birdseye's life).1982, Frozen Food Age (August) (an account of the development of the industry he created).AP -
50 Clark, Edward
SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors[br]fl. 1850s New York State, USA[br]American co-developer of mass-production techniques at the Singer sewing machine factory.[br]Born in upstate New York, where his father was a small manufacturer, Edward Clark attended college at Williams and graduated in 1831. He became a lawyer in New York City and from then on lived either in the city or on his rural estate near Cooperstown in upstate New York. After a series of share manipulations, Clark acquired a one-third interest in Isaac M. Singer's company. They soon bought out one of Singer's earlier partners, G.B.Zeiber, and in 1851, under the name of I.M.Singer \& Co., they set up a permanent sewing machine business with headquarters in New York.The success of their firm initially rested on marketing. Clark introduced door-to-door sales-people and hire-purchase for their sewing machines in 1856 ($50 cash down, or $100 with a cash payment of $5 and $3 a month thereafter). He also trained women to demonstrate to potential customers the capabilities of the Singer sewing machine. At first their sewing machines continued to be made in the traditional way, with the parts fitted together by skilled workers through hand filing and shaping so that the parts would fit only onto one machine. This resembled European practice rather than the American system of manufacture that had been pioneered in the armouries in that country. In 1856 Singer brought out their first machine intended exclusively for home use, and at the same time manufacturing capacity was improved. Through increased sales, a new factory was built in 1858–9 on Mott Street, New York, but it soon became inadequate to meet demand.In 1863 the Singer company was incorporated as the Singer Manufacturing Co. and began to modernize its production methods with special jigs and fixtures to help ensure uniformity. More and more specialized machinery was built for making the parts. By 1880 the factory, then at Elizabethport, New Jersey, was jammed with automatic and semi-automatic machine tools. In 1882 the factory was producing sewing machines with fully interchangeable parts that did not require hand fitting in assembly. Production rose from 810 machines in 1853 to half a million in 1880. A new family model was introduced in 1881. Clark had succeeded Singer, who died in 1875, as President of the company, but he retired in 1882 after he had seen through the change to mass production.[br]Further ReadingNational Cyclopaedia of American Biography.D.A.Hounshell, 1984, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932. The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore (a thorough account of Clark's role in the development of Singer's factories).F.B.Jewell, 1975, Veteran Sewing Machines. A Collector's Guide, Newton Abbot.RLH -
51 Crookes, Sir William
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 17 June 1832 London, Englandd. 4 April 1919 London, England[br]English chemist and physicist who carried out studies of electrical discharges and cathode rays in rarefied gases, leading to the development of the cathode ray tube; discoverer of the element thallium and the principle of the Crookes radiometer.[br]Crookes entered the Royal College of Chemistry at the age of 15, and from 1850 to 1854 held the appointment of Assistant at the college. In 1854 he became Superintendent of the Meteorological Department at the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford. He moved to a post at the College of Science in Chester the following year. Soon after this he inherited a large fortune and set up his own private laboratory in London. There he studied the nature of electrical discharges in gases at low pressure and discovered the dark space (later named after him) that surrounds the negative electrode, or cathode. He also established that the rays produced in the process (subsequently shown by J.J.Thompson to be a stream of electrons) not only travelled in straight lines, but were also capable of producing heat and/or light upon impact with suitable anode materials. Using a variety of new methods to investigate these "cathode" rays, he applied them to the spectral analysis of compounds of selenium and, as a result, in 1861 he discovered the element thallium, finally establishing its atomic weight in 1873. Following his discovery of thallium, he became involved in two main lines of research: the properties of rarified gases, and the investigation of the elements of the "rare earths". It was also during these experiments that he discovered the principle of the Crookes radiometer, a device in which light is converted into rotational motion and which used to be found frequently in the shop windows of English opticians. Also among the fruits of this work were the Crookes tubes and the development of spectacle lenses with differential ranges of radiational absorption. In the 1870s he became interested in spiritualism and acquired a reputation for his studies of psychic phenomena, but at the turn of the century he returned to traditional scientific investigations. In 1892 he wrote about the possibility of wireless telegraphy. His work in the field of radioactivity led to the invention of the spinthariscope, an early type of detector of alpha particles. In 1900 he undertook investigations into uranium which led to the study of scintillation, an important tool in the study of radioactivity.While the theoretical basis of his work has not stood the test of time, his material discoveries, observations and investigations of new facts formed a basis on which others such as J.J. Thomson were to develop subatomic theory. His later involvement in the investigation of spiritualism led to much criticism, but could be justified on the basis of a belief in the duty to investigate all phenomena.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1897. Order of Merit 1910. FRS 1863. President, Royal Society 1913–15. Honorary LLD Birmingham. Honorary DSc Oxon, Cambridge, Sheffield, Durham, Ireland and Cape of Good Hope.Bibliography1874, On Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radiation.1874, "Researches in the phenomenon of spiritualism", Society of Metaphysics; reprinted in facsimile, 1986.For many years he was also Proprietor and Editor of Chemical News.Further ReadingE.E.Fournier D'Albe, 1923, Life of Sir William Crookes. Who Was Who II, 1916–28, London: A. \& C. Black. T.I.Williams, 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists. See also Braun, Karl Ferdinand.KF / MG -
52 Dunlop, John Boyd
SUBJECT AREA: Land transport[br]b. 5 February 1840 Dreghorn, Ayrshire, Scotlandd. 23 October 1921 Ballsbridge, Dublin, Ireland[br]Scottish inventor and pioneer of the pneumatic tyre.[br]Reared in an agricultural community, Dunlop became a qualified veterinary surgeon and practised successfully in Edinburgh and then in Belfast when he moved there in 1867. In October 1887, Dunlop's 9-year-old son complained of the rough ride he experienced with his tricycle over the cobbled streets of Belfast. Dunlop devised and fitted rubber air tubes, held on to a wooden ring by tacking a linen covering which he fixed around the wheels of the tricycle. A marked improvement in riding quality was noted. After further development, a new tricycle was ordered, with the new airtube wheels. This was so successful that Dunlop applied for a patent on 23 July 1889, granted on 7 December. With tyres made in Edinburgh to his specification, bicycles were manufactured by Edlin \& Co. of Belfast and put on sale complete with pneumatic tyres. The successful performance of a racing bicycle thus equipped inspired an unsuccessful competitor, William Harvey de Cros, who had used a solid-tyred machine, to take an interest in Dunlop's invention. With Dunlop, he refloated a company in Dublin, the Pneumatic Tyre \& Booth's Cycle Agency. Dunlop made over his patents, for the tyre, valves, rims and fixing methods, to Du Cros and took shares in the company. Although he was involved in it for many years, it was Du Cros who steered the company through several struggles to success.The pneumatic tyre revolutionized cycling and made possible the success of the motor vehicle, although Dunlop did not profit greatly from his invention. After the sale of the company in 1896, to E.T.Hooley for $3 million, he took no further part in the development of the pneumatic tyre. The company went on to become the great Dunlop Rubber Company.[br]Further ReadingJ.McClintock, 1923, History of the Pneumatic Tyre, Belfast (written by Dunlop's daughter, who based the book on her father's reminiscences).LRD -
53 Johnson, Clarence Leonard (Kelly)
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 27 February 1910 Michigan, USAd. 21 December 1990 Burbank County, California, USA[br]American aircraft designer responsible for many outstanding Lockheed aircraft over a period of almost forty-eight years.[br]The large and successful Lockheed Aircraft Corporation grew out of a small company founded by Allan and Malcolm Loughhead (pronounced "Lockheed") in 1913. The company employed many notable designers such as Jack Northrop, Jerry Vultee and Lloyd Stearman, but the most productive was "Kelly" Johnson. After studying aeronautical engineering at the University of Michigan, Johnson joined Lockheed in 1933 and gained experience in all the branches of the design department. By 1938 he had been appointed Chief Research Engineer and became involved with the design of the P-38 Lightning twin-boom fighter and the Constellation airliner. In 1943 he set up a super-secret research and development organization called Advanced Development Projects, but this soon became known as the "Skunk Works": the name came from a very mysterious factory which made potions from skunks in the popular comic strip Li'lAbner. The first aircraft designed and built by Johnson's small hand-picked team was the XP-80 Shooting Star prototype jet fighter, which was produced in just 143 days: it became the United States' first production jet fighter. At this stage the Skunk Works produced a prototype, then the main Lockheed factories took over the production run. The F-104 Starfighter and the C-130 Hercules transport were produced in this way and became widely used in many countries. In 1954 work began on the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft which was so secret that production was carried out within the Skunk Works. This made the headlines in 1960 when one was shot down over Russia. Probably the most outstanding of Johnson's designs was the SR-71 Blackbird of 1964, a reconnaissance aircraft capable of flying at Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). Johnson was not only a great designer, he was also an outstanding manager, and his methods—including his "14 Rules"—have been widely followed. He retired from the Lockheed board in 1980, having been involved in the design of some forty aircraft.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsNational Medal of Freedom (the highest United States award for a civilian) 1964.Further ReadingObituary, 1991, Aerospace (Royal Aeronautical Society) (March).B.R.Rich, 1989, "The Skunk Works" management style: it's no secret', Aerospace (Royal Aeronautical Society) (March) (Rich was Johnson's successor).Details of Lockheed aircraft can be found in several publications, e.g.: R.J.Francillon, 1982, Lockheed Aircraft since 1913, London.JDSBiographical history of technology > Johnson, Clarence Leonard (Kelly)
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54 Marton, Ladislaus (Laslo)
[br]b. 15 August 1901 Budapest Hungary[br]Hungarian physicist, pioneer of the development and practical application of the electron microscope.[br]He studied and obtained his degree at Zurich in 1924 and undertook research there until 1925, when he moved to Budapest to work at the Tungsram Lamp Company. He moved to the University of Brussels in 1928, and during the ensuing ten years was involved in the construction and development of a focusing electron microscope. With the second of these he was able to take micrographs of cells in 1932 and of a bacterium in 1937.In 1941 he moved to the USA to work with Radio Corporation of America (RCA).[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInternational Union Against Cancer Medal 1938. Verhagen Medical, Brussels 1947. US Department of Commerce Gold Medal 1955.Bibliography1947, Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics.1957, Methods of Experimental Physics.1968, Early History of the Electron Microscope.Further ReadingWatt, 1984, Principles and Practice of Electron Microscopy, Cambridge. M.Hayat, 1973–80, Principles and Techniques of Electron Microscopy.MGBiographical history of technology > Marton, Ladislaus (Laslo)
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55 Maxwell, James Clerk
[br]b. 13 June 1831 Edinburgh, Scotlandd. 5 November 1879 Cambridge, England[br]Scottish physicist who formulated the unified theory of electromagnetism, the kinetic theory of gases and a theory of colour.[br]Maxwell attended school at the Edinburgh Academy and at the age of 16 went on to study at Edinburgh University. In 1850 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated four years later as Second Wrangler with the award of the Smith's Prize. Two years later he was appointed Professor at Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he married the Principal's daughter. In 1860 he moved to King's College London, but on the death of his father five years later, Maxwell returned to the family home in Scotland, where he continued his researches as far as the life of a gentleman farmer allowed. This rural existence was interrupted in 1874 when he was persuaded to accept the chair of Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge. Unfortunately, in 1879 he contracted the cancer that brought his brilliant career to an untimely end. While at Cambridge, Maxwell founded the Cavendish Laboratory for research in physics. A succession of distinguished physicists headed the laboratory, making it one of the world's great centres for notable discoveries in physics.During the mid-1850s, Maxwell worked towards a theory to explain electrical and magnetic phenomena in mathematical terms, culminating in 1864 with the formulation of the fundamental equations of electromagnetism (Maxwell's equations). These equations also described the propagation of light, for he had shown that light consists of transverse electromagnetic waves in a hypothetical medium, the "ether". This great synthesis of theories uniting a wide range of phenomena is worthy to set beside those of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein. Like all such syntheses, it led on to further discoveries. Maxwell himself had suggested that light represented only a small part of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves, and in 1888 Hertz confirmed the discovery of another small part of the spectrum, radio waves, with momentous implications for the development of telecommunication technology. Maxwell contributed to the kinetic theory of gases, which by then were viewed as consisting of a mass of randomly moving molecules colliding with each other and with the walls of the containing vessel. From 1869 Maxwell applied statistical methods to describe the molecular motion in mathematical terms. This led to a greater understanding of the behaviour of gases, with important consequences for the chemical industry.Of more direct technological application was Maxwell's work on colour vision, begun in 1849, showing that all colours could be derived from the three primary colours, red, yellow and blue. This enabled him in 1861 to produce the first colour photograph, of a tartan. Maxwell's discoveries about colour vision were quickly taken up and led to the development of colour printing and photography.[br]BibliographyMost of his technical papers are reprinted in The Scientific Papers of J.Clerk Maxwell, 1890, ed. W.D.Niven, Cambridge, 2 vols; reprinted 1952, New York.Maxwell published several books, including Theory of Heat, 1870, London (1894, 11th edn, with notes by Lord Rayleigh) and Theory of Electricity and Magnetism, 1873, Oxford (1891, ed. J.J.Thomson, 3rd edn).Further ReadingL.Campbell and W.Garnett, 1882, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, London (the standard biography).J.J.Thomson (ed.), 1931, James Clerk Maxwell 1831–1931, Cambridge. J.G.Crowther, 1932, British Scientists of the Nineteenth Century, London.LRD -
56 Pääbo, Max
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. Estonia fl. 1950s Sweden[br]Estonian inventor of one of the most successful looms, in which the weft is sent across the warp by a jet of air.[br]The earliest patent for using a jet of air to propel a shuttle across a loom was granted to J.C. Brooks in 1914. A different method was tried by E.H.Ballou in 1929, but the really important patent was taken out by Max Pääbo, a refugee from Estonia. He exhibited his machine in Sweden in 1951, weaving cotton cloth 80 cm (31 1/2 in.) wide at a speed of 350 picks per minute, but it was not widely publicized until 1954. One shown in Manchester in 1958 ran at 410 picks per minute while weaving 90 cm (35 1/2 in.) cloth. His looms were called "Maxbo" after him. They had no shuttle; instead a jet of air drove a measured amount of weft drawn from a supply package across the warp threads. Efficient control of the airstream was the main reason for its success; not only was weaving much quicker, but it was also much quieter than traditional methods, and as the warp was nearly vertical the looms took up little space. Manufacture of these looms in Sweden ceased in 1962, but development continued in other countries.[br]Further ReadingJ.J.Vincent, 1980, Shuttle less Looms, Manchester (a good account of the development of modern looms).RLH -
57 Preece, Sir William Henry
[br]b. 15 February 1834 Bryn Helen, Gwynedd, Walesd. 6 November 1913 Penrhos, Gwynedd, Wales[br]Welsh electrical engineer who greatly furthered the development and use of wireless telegraphy and the telephone in Britain, dominating British Post Office engineering during the last two decades of the nineteenth century.[br]After education at King's College, London, in 1852 Preece entered the office of Edwin Clark with the intention of becoming a civil engineer, but graduate studies at the Royal Institution under Faraday fired his enthusiasm for things electrical. His earliest work, as connected with telegraphy and in particular its application for securing the safe working of railways; in 1853 he obtained an appointment with the Electric and National Telegraph Company. In 1856 he became Superintendent of that company's southern district, but four years later he moved to telegraph work with the London and South West Railway. From 1858 to 1862 he was also Engineer to the Channel Islands Telegraph Company. When the various telegraph companies in Britain were transferred to the State in 1870, Preece became a Divisional Engineer in the General Post Office (GPO). Promotion followed in 1877, when he was appointed Chief Electrician to the Post Office. One of the first specimens of Bell's telephone was brought to England by Preece and exhibited at the British Association meeting in 1877. From 1892 to 1899 he served as Engineer-in-Chief to the Post Office. During this time he made a number of important contributions to telegraphy, including the use of water as part of telegraph circuits across the Solent (1882) and the Bristol Channel (1888). He also discovered the existence of inductive effects between parallel wires, and with Fleming showed that a current (thermionic) flowed between the hot filament and a cold conductor in an incandescent lamp.Preece was distinguished by his administrative ability, some scientific insight, considerable engineering intuition and immense energy. He held erroneous views about telephone transmission and, not accepting the work of Oliver Heaviside, made many errors when planning trunk circuits. Prior to the successful use of Hertzian waves for wireless communication Preece carried out experiments, often on a large scale, in attempts at wireless communication by inductive methods. These became of historic interest only when the work of Maxwell and Hertz was developed by Guglielmo Marconi. It is to Preece that credit should be given for encouraging Marconi in 1896 and collaborating with him in his early experimental work on radio telegraphy.While still employed by the Post Office, Preece contributed to the development of numerous early public electricity schemes, acting as Consultant and often supervising their construction. At Worcester he was responsible for Britain's largest nineteenth-century public hydro-electric station. He received a knighthood on his retirement in 1899, after which he continued his consulting practice in association with his two sons and Major Philip Cardew. Preece contributed some 136 papers and printed lectures to scientific journals, ninety-nine during the period 1877 to 1894.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCB 1894. Knighted (KCB) 1899. FRS 1881. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers, 1880. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1880, 1893. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1898–9. Chairman, Royal Society of Arts 1901–2.BibliographyPreece produced numerous papers on telegraphy and telephony that were presented as Royal Institution Lectures (see Royal Institution Library of Science, 1974) or as British Association reports.1862–3, "Railway telegraphs and the application of electricity to the signaling and working of trains", Proceedings of the ICE 22:167–93.Eleven editions of Telegraphy (with J.Sivewright), London, 1870, were published by 1895.1883, "Molecular radiation in incandescent lamps", Proceedings of the Physical Society 5: 283.1885. "Molecular shadows in incandescent lamps". Proceedings of the Physical Society 7: 178.1886. "Electric induction between wires and wires", British Association Report. 1889, with J.Maier, The Telephone.1894, "Electric signalling without wires", RSA Journal.1898, "Aetheric telegraphy", Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.Further ReadingJ.J.Fahie, 1899, History of Wireless Telegraphy 1838–1899, Edinburgh: Blackwood. E.Hawkes, 1927, Pioneers of Wireless, London: Methuen.E.C.Baker, 1976, Sir William Preece, F.R.S. Victorian Engineer Extraordinary, London (a detailed biography with an appended list of his patents, principal lectures and publications).D.G.Tucker, 1981–2, "Sir William Preece (1834–1913)", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 53:119–36 (a critical review with a summary of his consultancies).GW / KFBiographical history of technology > Preece, Sir William Henry
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58 Rammler, Erich
[br]b. 9 July 1901 Tirpersdorf, near Oelsnitz, Germanyd. 6 November 1986 Freiberg, Saxony, Germany[br]German mining engineer, developer of metallurgic coke from lignite.[br]A scholar of the Mining Academy in Freiberg, who in his dissertation dealt with the fineness of coal dust, Rammler started experiments in 1925 relating to firing this material. In the USA this process, based on coal, had turned out to be very effective in large boiler furnaces. Rammler endeavoured to apply the process to lignite and pursued general research work on various thermochemical problems as well as methods of grinding and classifying. As producing power from lignite was of specific interest for the young Soviet Union, with its large demand from its new power stations and its as-yet unexploited lignite deposits, he soon came into contact with the Soviet authorities. In his laboratory in Dresden, which he had bought from the freelance metallurgist Paul Otto Rosin after his emigration and under whom he had been working since he left the Academy, he continued his studies in refining coal and soon gained an international reputation. He opened up means of producing coke from lignite for use in metallurgical processes.His later work was of utmost importance after the Second World War when several countries in Eastern Europe, especially East Germany with its large lignite deposits, established their own iron and steel industries. Accordingly, the Soviet administration supported his experiments vigorously after he joined Karl Kegel's Institute for Briquetting in Freiberg in 1945. Through his numerous books and articles, he became the internationally leading expert on refining lignite and Kegel's successor as head of the Institute and Professor at the Bergakademie. Six years later, he produced for the first time high-temperature coke from lignite low in ash and sulphur for smelting in low-shaft furnaces. Rammler was widely honoured and contributed decisively to the industrial development of his country; he demonstrated new technological processes when, under austere conditions, economical and ecological considerations were neglected.[br]BibliographyRammler, whose list of publications comprises more than 600 titles on various matters of his main scientific concern, also was the co-author (with E.Wächtler) of two articles on the development of briquetting brown coal in Germany, both published in 1985, Freiberger Forschungshefte, D 163 and D 169, Leipzig.Further ReadingE.Wächtler, W.Mühlfriedel and W.Michel, 1976, Erich Rammler, Leipzig, (substantial biography, although packed with communist propaganda).M.Rasch, 1989, "Paul Rosin—Ingenieur, Hochschullehrer und Rationalisierungsfachmann". Technikgeschichte 56:101–32 (describes the framework within which Rammler's primary research developed).WK -
59 Singer, Isaac Merritt
[br]b. 27 October 1811 Pittstown, New York, USAd. 23 July 1875 Torquay, Devonshire, England[br]American inventor of a sewing machine, and pioneer of mass production.[br]The son of a millwright, Singer was employed as an unskilled labourer at the age of 12, but later gained wide experience as a travelling machinist. He also found employment as an actor. On 16 May 1839, while living at Lockport, Illinois, he obtained his first patent for a rock-drilling machine, but he soon squandered the money he made. Then in 1849, while at Pittsburgh, he secured a patent for a wood-and metal-carving machine that he had begun five years previously; however, a boiler explosion in the factory destroyed his machine and left him penniless.Near the end of 1850 Singer was engaged to redesign the Lerow \& Blodgett sewing machine at the Boston shop of Orson C.Phelps, where the machine was being repaired. He built an improved version in eleven days that was sufficiently different for him to patent on 12 August 1851. He formed a partnership with Phelps and G.B. Zieber and they began to market the invention. Singer soon purchased Phelps's interest, although Phelps continued to manufacture the machines. Then Edward Clark acquired a one-third interest and with Singer bought out Zieber. These two, with dark's flair for promotion and marketing, began to create a company which eventually would become the largest manufacturer of sewing machines exported worldwide, with subsidiary factories in England.However, first Singer had to defend his patent, which was challenged by an earlier Boston inventor, Elias Howe. Although after a long lawsuit Singer had to pay royalties, it was the Singer machine which eventually captured the market because it could do continuous stitching. In 1856 the Great Sewing Machine Combination, the first important pooling arrangement in American history, was formed to share the various patents so that machines could be built without infringements and manufacture could be expanded without fear of litigation. Singer contributed his monopoly on the needle-bar cam with his 1851 patent. He secured twenty additional patents, so that his original straight-needle vertical design for lock-stitching eventually included such refinements as a continuous wheel-feed, yielding presser-foot, and improved cam for moving the needle-bar. A new model, introduced in 1856, was the first to be intended solely for use in the home.Initially Phelps made all the machines for Singer. Then a works was established in New York where the parts were assembled by skilled workers through filing and fitting. Each machine was therefore a "one-off" but Singer machines were always advertised as the best on the market and sold at correspondingly high prices. Gradually, more specialized machine tools were acquired, but it was not until long after Singer had retired to Europe in 1863 that Clark made the change to mass production. Sales of machines numbered 810 in 1853 and 21,000 ten years later.[br]Bibliography12 August 1851, US patent no. 8,294 (sewing machine)Further ReadingBiographies and obituaries have appeared in Appleton's Cyclopedia of America, Vol. V; Dictionary of American Biography, Vol XVII; New York Times 25 July 1875; Scientific American (1875) 33; and National Cyclopaedia of American Biography.D.A.Hounshell, 1984, From the American System to Mass Production 1800–1932. TheDevelopment of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore (provides a thorough account of the development of the Singer sewing machine, the competition it faced from other manufacturers and production methods).RLH -
60 Wilson, Percy
[br]b. 8 March 1893 Halifax, Yorkshire, Englandd. May 1977[br]English engineer and technical writer who developed geometries for pick-arms and reproducing horns.[br]He graduated from The Queen's College with a BA in 1915 and an MA in 1918. He was an instructor and lecturer in the Royal Navy in 1915–19. He became an administrative officer with the Board of Education until 1938, and continued his work in the British Civil Service in the Ministry of Transport until 1949. From 1924 to 1938 he was Technical Adviser, and from 1953 Technical Editor, with Gramophone, a publication catering for the record-and equipment-buying public. He brought a mathematical mind to the problems of gramophone reproduction and solved the geometrical problem of obtaining a reasonable approximation to tangential tracking across the surface of a record even though the soundbox (or pick-up) is carried by a pivoted arm. Later he tackled the problem of horns, determining that a modified exponential horn, even with a bent axis, would give optimal reproduction by a purely acoustic system. This development was used commercially during the 1930s. Wilson was for a time a member of the School Broadcasting Council and developed methods for improving subjective listening tests for evaluation of audio equipment. He was also deeply involved in the long-playing record system used for Talking Books for the Blind. He had a life-long interest in spiritualist matters and was President of the Spiritualist National Union from 1950 to 1953 and Chairman of the Psychic Press from 1951.[br]Bibliography1929, with G.W.Webb, Modern Gramophones and Electrical Reproducers, London: Cassell (the first book to draw the consequences of the recent development of electronic filter theory for the interpretation of record wear).Further ReadingG.A.Briggs (ed.), 1961, Audio Biographies, Wharfedale Wireless Works, pp. 326–34.GB-N
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