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made-up+circuit

  • 81 orbita

    orbĭta, ae, f. [orbis].
    I.
    A track or rut made in the ground by a wheel.
    A.
    Lit. (class.):

    impressa orbita,

    Cic. Att. 2, 21, 2; id. Verr. 2, 3, 3, § 6; Verg. G. 3, 293; Liv. 32, 17.—
    B.
    Trop., a track, course, path (ante-class. and poet.): neque id ab orbitā matrum familias instituti, quod, etc., Varr. ap. Non. 542, 28; Plin. 8, 58, 83, § 227; a beaten path, Quint. 2, 13, 16:

    veteris culpae,

    i. e. bad example, Juv. 14, 37.—
    II.
    An impression, mark left by a ligature:

    vinculi,

    Plin. 17, 23, 35, § 210.—
    III.
    A circuit, orbit:

    orbita lunae,

    Auct. Aetn. 230:

    lunaris illa orbita,

    Sen. Q. N. 7, 10, 2.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > orbita

  • 82 внесенная неисправность

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > внесенная неисправность

  • 83 positive

    [ˈpɔzətɪv]
    1. adjective
    1) meaning or saying "yes":

    They tested the water for the bacteria and the result was positive (= the bacteria were present).

    إيجابي
    2) definite; leaving no doubt:

    positive proof.

    باتٌّ، قاطِع
    3) certain or sure:

    I'm positive he's right.

    مؤكَّد، مُتأكِّد
    4) complete or absolute:

    His work is a positive disgrace.

    تام، مَحْض
    5) optimistic and prepared to make plans for the future:

    Take a more positive attitude to life.

    إيجابي، متفائِل
    6) not showing any comparison; not comparative or superlative.
    إثْباتي، لا يَدُل على مُقارَنَه
    7) (of a number etc) greater than zero.
    أكْثَر من صِفْر
    8) having fewer electrons than normal:

    In an electrical circuit, electrons flow to the positive terminal.

    موجَب، فيه الكترونات أكثر من العادي
    2. noun
    1) a photographic print, made from a negative, in which light and dark are as normal.
    صورَة فوتوغرافِيَّه موجَبَه
    2) (an adjective or adverb of) the positive (not comparative or superlative) degree.
    الصِّفَة الموجَبَه في غَيْر صيغة المقارنَه

    Arabic-English dictionary > positive

  • 84 клавиша (кнопка)


    key
    коммутационное устройство (кнопка) для включения/выключения эл. цепей, — а hand-operated switching device for switching one or more parts of a circuit.
    - (лампа) — key, key lamp /light/
    - автоматического поиска записи программы при перемотке в обратном направлении — reverse apld key
    - быстрой перемотки магн. ленты для нахождения начала требуемой записи — fast forward/cue key
    - ввода (на пуи сист. омега) — enter key, ent key
    для записи выведенной на индикаторы информации в память вычислителя — transfers entered data into the receiver-processor unit.
    - ввода информации — data enter /insert/ key
    - ввода координат ппмwaypoint define key (wpt def)
    позволяет осуществлять смену участков маршрута вручную — allows entry of waypoint соordinates.
    - ввода признака левого (правого) смещения самолета — l(r) key allows left (right) offset distance data entry.
    - ввода цифры (о,1,3) — digit (0,1,3) enter key
    - ввода цифры (2,4,6,8) или сев. (южн.) широты, зап, (вост.) долготы места самолета — (n2, w4, 6е, 8s) key
    - возврата (наборного поля)backspace key (вк)

    allows data entry to be backspaced one digit if an error is made during entry.
    - воспроизведения (записи)playback key
    - высвечивается — key (light) illuminates /is lit/
    - (лампа) загораетсяkey (lamp) lights
    - записи (магнитофона)record key
    - долготы w/4 (зап.) — longitude direction key w/4
    - коррекции ввода (данных)backspace key (bk)
    - (лампа) мигаетkey (lamp) flashes
    - обратной перемотки (магн. ленты) — (tape) rewind key
    - определение ппм — waypoint define key, wpt def key
    - останова информации — information /data/ hold key, hld key
    - перемотки (магнитной ленты(tape) wind key
    - (лампа) продолжает горетьkey (lamp) remains lit
    - смены участков маршрута — leg change key, leg chg key

    allows manual performance of leg changes.
    - "стоп" (магнитофона) — stop key

    press the stop key to stop the tape.
    - фиксации информации — information hold key, hld key

    allows displayed present position information to be frozen.
    - широты n/2 (сев.) — latitude direction key n/2

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > клавиша (кнопка)

  • 85 осмотр


    inspection
    -, внеплановый — unscheduled maintenance inspection /check/
    -, внешний — external inspection
    -, внешний (в графе способ обнаружения дефекта) — visual inspection
    -, внутренний — internal inspection
    -, выборочный (проверка) — sampling /spot/ inspection
    - для определения и устранения неисправностейinspection for trouble shooting
    -, ежедневный — daily inspection
    - кабины экипажаcockpit inspection
    - кабины экипажа на готовность к полету (отсутствие опасных условий) — cockpit safety inspection. а cockpit safety inspection procedure is performed by the co-pilot to ascertain that electrical and/or pneumatic power may be applied safely.
    -, комплексный (систем) — combined systems checkout
    -, контрольный (ла, систем агрегатов при обслуживании) — inspection
    -, контрольный (разобранных узлов двигателя после длительного испытания на выявление усталостных разрушений и/или износа) — teardown inspection after completing the endurаnce test the engine must be completely disassembled and а detailed inspection made of each part to check for fatigue and wear.
    -, медицинский — medical examination
    - на месте (без демонтажа)(visual) in-situ inspection
    -, наружный — visual inspection
    -, наружный (для определения повреждений) — mechanical check
    -, нерегулярный — irregulator inspection
    -, окончательный — final inspection
    -, оперативный — line inspection
    -, периодический — periodic inspection
    -, плановый — scheduled inspection
    -, поверхностный — light inspection
    - после грубой посадкиhard landing inspection
    -, послеполетный — post-flight inspection
    -, предполетный — pre-flight inspection
    -, приемо-сдаточный — acceptance inspection
    - /проверка/ (раздел рэ) — inspection/check
    -, профилактический — (failure) preventive inspection
    -, регламентный — scheduled maintenance inspection /check/
    -, регламентный (25-часовой) — 25-hour inspection
    -, случайный (нерегулярный, незапланированный) — haphazard inspection. irregular and haphazard inspection will invariably result in gradual and certain deterioration of the airplane.
    -, стартовый — lineup inspection
    -, текущий (оперативный) — line inspection
    -, текущий (плановый) — routine inspection
    -, технический — inspection
    -, тщательный — through inspection
    -, целевой (внерегламентный) — unscheduled inspection
    - элементов конструкции (ла)(aircraft) structural inspection
    - элементов конструкции, выборочный ла — structural sampling inspection
    выборочный осмотр сокращает трудозатраты, потребные для контроля состояния конструкции ла. — structural sampling (inspection) will reduce manhours required for the airframe structural inspection.
    - элементов конструкции планера самолетаairframe structural inspection
    -, эпизодический — irregular inspection, inspection at irregular intervals
    акт о. — inspection report
    маршрут наружного о. (самолета) (рис. 148) — circuit of external inspection, walk around check
    порядок о. — inspection procedure
    результаты о. — results of inspection
    с момента последнего о. — since last inspection, from date of last inspection
    подвергать 0. — subject to inspection, inspect
    производить (внешний) о. — inspect (visually)

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > осмотр

  • 86 отказ


    failure (fail)
    "-" (лампа сигнализации об отказах навигационной системы "омега") — mal (malfunction)
    -, внезапный — sudden failure
    -, вызванный неисправностью смежного оборудования (или изделия) — failure due to /caused by/ malfunction of associated equipment (or item)
    "- гидр. сист. 1" (табло) — hyd sys 1 fail (annunciator)
    - двигателей, расположенных с одной стороны самолета — failure of the engines on one side of the airplane
    - двигателяengine failure
    "- дв. (двигателя) n 1 (табло) — eng 1 fail. illuminates with loss of engine no. i power.
    -, двойной одновременный — double coincidental failure
    система имеет тройное резервирование и остается работоспособной при двойном одновременном отказе, — the system is triplexed and a double coincidental failure allows the system to be operable.
    -, единичный (одиночный) — single failure
    обеспечивается безопасность посадки при единичном отказе в силовой части бустерной системы управления. — safe landing is ensured in the event of а single failure in the power portion of powerboost control system.
    "- ист.(очника) пит.(ания) осн. и резервн." (табло) — ess/stby power (fail) this red annunciator comes on when normal ас or dc essential/standby power source has failed.
    - напряжения (27 в) — 27 v dc power removal when 27 v dc power is removed,
    "- иву" (табло отказа навигационного вычислительного устройства) — nav cmptr fail
    -, одновременный — coincidental failure
    "- основного) и резервного источников питания" (эл.) (табло) — ess/stby power fail normal ас ог dc essential/standby power source has failed.
    - отбора воздуха (от двиг.) no температуре (т.е. вызванный изменением нормального температурного режима) — engine air bleed failure due to /caused by/ temperature (condition)
    - питанияpower failure
    - питания (напр., автопилота) — (autopilot) power failure
    - питания, кратковременный (менее чем на 3 мин.) — short duration power failure (of less than three minutes)
    - питания, продопжитепьный — long duration power failure
    -, полный (системы) — catastrophic (system) failure
    -, преждевременный — premature failure
    - работы цепи (эл.) — circuit failure
    "- сист. сигн. рассоглас. закрылков" (табло) — asm det fault а fault is detected in asymmetry detection system for
    "- сист. путевой уст(ойчивости)" (табло) — yaw sas fail (annunciator)
    - шины (эл.) — bus power failure
    "- шины no 1" (табло) — bus i pwr fail (light)
    "- шины akk" — ватт bus pwr fail
    "- шины ген." — gen bus pwr fail
    до 0. (полностью) — fully, home, as far as it will go pulf the control stick fully.
    до 0. в крайнее положение — to extreme... position. move the left pedal to extreme forward position.
    при внезапном о. двигателя — with the engine suddenly failed /made inoperative/
    при любом случае о. двигателя — under any kind of engine failure
    случай 0. — failure
    точка 0. двигателя — engine failure point
    затягивать (гайку) до о. — tighten (nut) fully /home, to refusal/
    имитировать 0. двигателя (выключать двигатель) — make engine inoperative

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > отказ

  • 87 триггер (эл.)


    flip-flop, trigger (circuit), bi-

    stable multivibrator a two-stage multivibrator clrciut having two stable states.
    - (двухкаскадный усилитель пост. тока, охваченный nоложительной обратной связью) — flip-flop
    - шмидта — schmitt trigger /limiter/ а bistable pulse generator.
    закрываться (о триггере)be cutoff
    открываться (о триггере) — be made conducting

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > триггер (эл.)

  • 88 щиток


    flap
    (аэродинамическая поверхность)
    - (втулки или диска колеса)guard plate
    - (защитное устройство, экран) — shield
    - (панель управления)panel
    -, абонентский спгу (самолет, переговорн. громкоговор. ус-ва) — audio (station) selector panel
    -, абонентский сну (самолетного переговорного ус-ва) — interphone selector /control/ panel
    - автоматического вывода из пикированияrecovery flap
    выпуск щитка изменяет характеристики момента тангажа самолета и обеспечивает автоматический вывод из пикирования. — recovery flap operation so alters the pitching-moment characteristics of an aircraft that recovery from а dive is automatic, or made easier to the pilot.
    - автоматов защиты сети (a3cов) (рис. 88) — circuit breaker (cb) panel
    - бортпроводникаcabin attendant's switch panel
    - бытовых приборовfurnishing units control panel
    -, верхний, радиооборудования — overhead radio control panel
    -, верхний электрический (потолочный электрощиток) (рис. 88) — overhead switch panel (consists of forward center and aft panels)
    - воздушного тормозаair brake
    -, грязевой (колеса) — mud guard
    -, дополнительный (в кабине) — auxiliary panel
    -, дополнительный абонентский (спу) — auxiliary interphone selector panel
    - заправки и слива топлива — refuel/defuel (control) panel, refuel/offload panel
    - заправки топливом (в отсеке шасси) — fueling control panel, refuel (control) panel
    - запуска двигателя (у бортинженера)engine start control panel
    - запуска /останова двигателей — engine start/shutdown control panel
    - зарядки кислородомoxygen servicing (control) panel
    - индивидуального обелуживания пассажиров — passenger service panel carries cabin attendant call button, reading light, ventilation outlet
    - интерцептора (спойлера)spoiler panel
    - колеса (обтекатель)wheel fairing
    -, маслоотражательный — oil slinger
    - на козырьке приборной доски (рис. 88) — glareshield (mounted) control panel
    - останова двигателейengine shutdown control panel
    - пассажира (панель обслуживания пассажиров)passenger service panel
    на щитке смонтированы светильник индивидуального освешения, кнопка вызова бортпроводника и насадок индивид. вентиляции. — the passenger service panel carries а reading light, cabin attendant /steward/ call button, and fresh air outlet.
    - переключения (рад. частот) каналов (щпк) — (radio) frequency selector panel
    - подкоса главной ноги шасси (рис. 1) — main landing gear strut fairing
    - пожарной сигнализацииfire warning panel
    -, посадочный (закрылок) — plane flap

    a flap hinged to the wing and comprising a part of the trailing edge.
    -, потолочный электрический (верхний электрощиток) — overhead switch panel
    -, предохранительный (уровня электролита аккумулятора) — safety level cover
    -, приборный (правый) (рис. 88) — (right, right-side) instrument panel
    -, противосолнечный — sun visor
    - сигнализации световой, аварийный — warning light panel
    - сигнализации (положения) дверей и люковdoor position indicating panel
    - (шлема), смотровой — helmet visor
    -, солнцезащитный — sun visor
    устанавливается на верхней раме лобового стекла. — sun visor is mounted on the upper windshield frame.
    - спгу (самолетного neperоворного громкоговорящего устройства), абонентский — audio (station) selector panel
    -, тормозной (полетный) — drag flap
    тормозные устройства (спойлеры и тормозн. щитки) могут использоваться в полете. — speed control devices (such as spoilers and drag flaps) are installed for use in enroute conditions.
    -, тормозной, автоматический (типа спойлер для сокращения пробега или дистанции прерванного взлета) — (automatic) ground spoiler (auto gnd splr)
    -, тормозной воздушный — air brake
    -, тормозной (двигателя) — thrust brake /spoiler/, hot stream spoiler (door)
    -, тормозной (в системе спойлеров) — ground speller
    - угловой приборный (рис. 88) — gusset instrument panel
    - управленияcontrol panel
    - управления выработкой топливаfuel management panel
    - управления заправкой топливаrefuel control panel
    - управления и контроля отбора воздуха от двигателяengine air bleed control panel
    - управления и контроля энергетикиelectrical (power) control panel
    - управления очередности выработки топливаfuel management panel
    - управления спгуaudio (station) selector panel
    - шасси (обтекатель)landing gear fairing
    - шасси (створка)landing gear door
    -, электрический (электрощиток управления) — switch panel, electrical control panel
    - энергетики перем. (пост.) тока — ас (dc) power control panel
    выпускать тормозной щ. — extend /deploy/ ground spoiler

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > щиток

  • 89 Braun, Karl Ferdinand

    [br]
    b. 6 June 1850 Fulda, Hesse, Germany
    d. 20 April 1918 New York City, New York, USA
    [br]
    German physicist who shared with Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for developments in wireless telegraphy; inventor of the cathode ray oscilloscope.
    [br]
    After obtaining degrees from the universities of Marburg and Berlin (PhD) and spending a short time as Headmaster of the Thomas School in Berlin, Braun successively held professorships in theoretical physics at the universities of Marburg (1876), Strasbourg (1880) and Karlsruhe (1883) before becoming Professor of Experimental Physics at Tübingen in 1885 and Director and Professor of Physics at Strasbourg in 1895.
    During this time he devised experimental apparatus to determine the dielectric constant of rock salt and developed the Braun high-tension electrometer. He also discovered that certain mineral sulphide crystals would only conduct electricity in one direction, a rectification effect that made it possible to detect and demodulate radio signals in a more reliable manner than was possible with the coherer. Primarily, however, he was concerned with improving Marconi's radio transmitter to increase its broadcasting range. By using a transmitter circuit comprising a capacitor and a spark-gap, coupled to an aerial without a spark-gap, he was able to obtain much greater oscillatory currents in the latter, and by tuning the transmitter so that the oscillations occupied only a narrow frequency band he reduced the interference with other transmitters. Other achievements include the development of a directional aerial and the first practical wavemeter, and the measurement in Strasbourg of the strength of radio waves received from the Eiffel Tower transmitter in Paris. For all this work he subsequently shared with Marconi the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics.
    Around 1895 he carried out experiments using a torsion balance in order to measure the universal gravitational constant, g, but the work for which he is probably best known is the addition of deflecting plates and a fluorescent screen to the Crooke's tube in 1897 in order to study the characteristics of high-frequency currents. The oscilloscope, as it was called, was not only the basis of a now widely used and highly versatile test instrument but was the forerunner of the cathode ray tube, or CRT, used for the display of radar and television images.
    At the beginning of the First World War, while in New York to testify in a patent suit, he was trapped by the entry of the USA into the war and remained in Brooklyn with his son until his death.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Nobel Prize for Physics (jointly with Marconi) 1909.
    Bibliography
    1874, "Assymetrical conduction of certain metal sulphides", Pogg. Annal. 153:556 (provides an account of the discovery of the crystal rectifier).
    1897, "On a method for the demonstration and study of currents varying with time", Wiedemann's Annalen 60:552 (his description of the cathode ray oscilloscope as a measuring tool).
    Further Reading
    K.Schlesinger \& E.G.Ramberg, 1962, "Beamdeflection and photo-devices", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 50, 991.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Braun, Karl Ferdinand

  • 90 Kennelly, Arthur Edwin

    [br]
    b. 17 December 1871 Colaba, Bombay, India
    d. 18 June 1939 Boston, Massachusetts, USA
    [br]
    Anglo-American electrical engineer who predicted the ionosphere and developed mathematical analysis for electronic circuits.
    [br]
    As a young man, Kennelly worked as office boy for a London engineering society, as an electrician and on a cable-laying ship. In 1887 he went to work for Thomas Edison at West Orange, New Jersey, USA, becoming his chief assistant. In 1894, with Edwin J.Houston, he formed the Philadelphia company of Houston and Kennelly, but eight years later he took up the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Harvard, a post he held until his retirement in 1930. In 1902 he noticed that the radio signals received by Marconi in Nova Scotia from the transmitter in England were stronger than predicted and postulated a reflecting ionized layer in the upper atmosphere. Almost simultaneously the same prediction was made in England by Heaviside, so the layer became known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Throughout most of his working life Kennelly was concerned with the application of mathematical techniques, particularly the use of complex theory, to the analysis of electrical circuits. With others he also contributed to an understanding of the high-frequency skin-effect in conductors.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 1898–1900. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1916. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1932; Edison Medal 1933.
    Bibliography
    1915, with F.A.Laws \& P.H.Pierce "Experimental research on the skin effect in conductors", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 34:1,953.
    1924, Hyperbolic Functions as Applied to Electrical Engineering.
    1924, Check Atlas of Complex Hyperbolic \& Circular Functions (both on mathematics for circuit analysis).
    Further Reading
    K.Davies, 1990, Ionospheric Radio, London: Peter Peregrinus. See also Appleton, Sir Edward Victor.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Kennelly, Arthur Edwin

  • 91 Noyce, Robert

    [br]
    b. 12 December 1927 Burlington, Iowa, USA
    [br]
    American engineer responsible for the development of integrated circuits and the microprocessor chip.
    [br]
    Noyce was the son of a Congregational minister whose family, after a number of moves, finally settled in Grinnell, some 50 miles (80 km) east of Des Moines, Iowa. Encouraged to follow his interest in science, in his teens he worked as a baby-sitter and mower of lawns to earn money for his hobby. One of his clients was Professor of Physics at Grinnell College, where Noyce enrolled to study mathematics and physics and eventually gained a top-grade BA. It was while there that he learned of the invention of the transistor by the team at Bell Laboratories, which included John Bardeen, a former fellow student of his professor. After taking a PhD in physical electronics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953, he joined the Philco Corporation in Philadelphia to work on the development of transistors. Then in January 1956 he accepted an invitation from William Shockley, another of the Bell transistor team, to join the newly formed Shockley Transistor Company, the first electronic firm to set up shop in Palo Alto, California, in what later became known as "Silicon Valley".
    From the start things at the company did not go well and eventually Noyce and Gordon Moore and six colleagues decided to offer themselves as a complete development team; with the aid of the Fairchild Camera and Instrument Company, the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation was born. It was there that in 1958, contemporaneously with Jack K. Wilby at Texas Instruments, Noyce had the idea for monolithic integration of transistor circuits. Eventually, after extended patent litigation involving study of laboratory notebooks and careful examination of the original claims, priority was assigned to Noyce. The invention was most timely. The Apollo Moon-landing programme announced by President Kennedy in May 1961 called for lightweight sophisticated navigation and control computer systems, which could only be met by the rapid development of the new technology, and Fairchild was well placed to deliver the micrologic chips required by NASA.
    In 1968 the founders sold Fairchild Semicon-ductors to the parent company. Noyce and Moore promptly found new backers and set up the Intel Corporation, primarily to make high-density memory chips. The first product was a 1,024-bit random access memory (1 K RAM) and by 1973 sales had reached $60 million. However, Noyce and Moore had already realized that it was possible to make a complete microcomputer by putting all the logic needed to go with the memory chip(s) on a single integrated circuit (1C) chip in the form of a general purpose central processing unit (CPU). By 1971 they had produced the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which sold for US$200, and within a year the 8008 followed. The personal computer (PC) revolution had begun! Noyce eventually left Intel, but he remained active in microchip technology and subsequently founded Sematech Inc.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Franklin Institute Stuart Ballantine Medal 1966. National Academy of Engineering 1969. National Academy of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1978; Cledo Brunetti Award (jointly with Kilby) 1978. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1979. National Medal of Science 1979. National Medal of Engineering 1987.
    Bibliography
    1955, "Base-widening punch-through", Proceedings of the American Physical Society.
    30 July 1959, US patent no. 2,981,877.
    Further Reading
    T.R.Reid, 1985, Microchip: The Story of a Revolution and the Men Who Made It, London: Pan Books.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Noyce, Robert

  • 92 Reis, (Johann) Philipp

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 7 January 1834 Geinherusen, Hesse-Kassel, Germany
    d. 14 January 1874 Friedrichsdorf, Germany
    [br]
    German schoolteacher and inventor who constructed an early form of telephone.
    [br]
    Reis entered the Garniers Institute in Friedrichsdorf in 1844 and then the Hassels Institute in Frankfurt. There he developed an interest in science, but on leaving school in 1850 he was apprenticed to the colour trade by his uncle. This involved study at the trade school and Dr Poppe's Institute in Frankfurt; while there he joined the Frankfurt Physical Society. Following military service in 1855 he studied to be a teacher. After his graduation he obtained a post at Garniers, where he began to pursue experiments with electricity and the development of hearing aids. In 1859 he sent a paper on the radiation of electricity to the editor of Annalen der Physik, but this was rejected, as was a later submission. Undeterred, he continued his experiments and by 1861 he had designed several instruments for the transmission of sound. The transmitter consisted of a membrane on which rested a metal strip that made contact with a metal point and completed an electrical circuit under the action of sound. The receiver consisted of an iron needle surrounded by a coil and resting on a sounding box, the operation probably being achieved by magnetostriction. The invention, which he described in a lecture to the Frankfurt Physical Society on 26 October 1861 and in a published paper, could produce tones and probably also speech, but was largely rejected by the scientific fraternity. The claim to produce speech was discounted in subsequent court cases that upheld the patents of Alexander Bell.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    On 8 December 1878 a monument to Reis was erected in the Friedrichsdorf Cemetery by the Physical Society of Frankfurt.
    Bibliography
    1860–1, "Über Telephone durch den galvani-schen Strom", Jahresbericht der Physikalische 57.
    Further Reading
    J.Munro, 1891, Heroes of the Telegraph.
    Silvanus P.Thompson, 1883, Philipp Reis. Inventor of the Telephone.
    B.B.Bauer, 1962, "A century of the microphone", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers: 720.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Reis, (Johann) Philipp

  • 93 Shannon, Claude Elwood

    [br]
    b. 30 April 1916 Gaylord, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American mathematician, creator of information theory.
    [br]
    As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.
    Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.
    Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.
    Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.
    On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    National Medal of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, Kyoto Prize.
    Bibliography
    His seminal paper (on what has subsequently become known as information theory) was entitled "The mathematical theory of communications", first published in Bell System Technical Journal in 1948; it is also available in a monograph (written with Warren Weaver) published by the University of Illinois Press in 1949, and in Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory, ed. David Slepian, IEEE Press, 1974, 1988. For readers who want all of Shannon's works, see N.J.A.Sloane and A.D.Wyner, 1992, The
    Collected Papers of Claude E.Shannon.
    HO

    Biographical history of technology > Shannon, Claude Elwood

  • 94 Thévénin, Léon Charles

    SUBJECT AREA: Electricity
    [br]
    b. 30 March 1857 Paris, France
    d. 21 September 1926 Paris, France
    [br]
    French telegraph engineer who extended Ohm's Law to the analysis of complex electrical circuits.
    [br]
    Following a basic education, Thévénin entered the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris, graduating in 1876. In 1878 he joined the Corps of Telegraph Engineers (which subsequently became the French PTT). There he initially worked on the development of long-distance underground telegraph lines, but he later switched to working on power lines. Appointed a teaching inspector at the Ecole Supérieure in 1882, he became increasingly interested in the problems of measurement in electrical circuits. As a result of studying Kirchoff's Laws, which were essentially derived from Ohm's Law, he developed his now-famous theorem which made it possible to calculate the currents in more complex electrical circuits.
    As well as becoming Head of the Bureau des Lignes, up until his death he also found time for teaching other subjects outside the Ecole, including a course in mechanics at the Institut National Agronomique. In 1896 he was appointed Director of the Telegraph Engineering School, then, in 1901, Engineer-in-Chief of the telegraph workshops. He retired in 1914.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1883, "Extension of Ohm's Law to complex electrical circuits", Comptes rendus 97:159 (describes Thévénin's Theorem).
    Further Reading
    F.E.Terman, 1943, Radio Engineers'Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill, Section 3 (summarizes the relevant circuit theory).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Thévénin, Léon Charles

  • 95 Wheatstone, Sir Charles

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 1802 near Gloucester, England
    d. 19 October 1875 Paris, France
    [br]
    English physicist, pioneer of electric telegraphy.
    [br]
    Wheatstone's family moved to London when he was 4 years old. He was educated at various schools in London and excelled in physics and mathematics. He qualified for a French prize but forfeited it because he was too shy to recite a speech in French at the prize-giving.
    An uncle, also called Charles Wheatstone, has a musical instrument manufacturing business where young Charles went to work. He was fascinated by the science of music, but did not enjoy business life. After the uncle's death, Charles and his brother William took over the business. Charles developed and patented the concertina, which the firm assembled from parts made by "outworkers". He devoted much of his time to studying the physics of sound and mechanism of sound transmission through solids. He sent speech and music over considerable distances through solid rods and stretched wires, and envisaged communication at a distance. He concluded, however, that electrical methods were more promising.
    In 1834 Wheatstone was appointed Professor of Experimental Philosophy—a part-time posi-tion—in the new King's College, London, which gave him some research facilities. He conducted experiments with a telegraph system using several miles of wire in the college corridors. Jointly with William Fothergill Cooke, in 1837 he obtained the first patent for a practical electric telegraph, and much of the remainder of his life was devoted to its improvement. In 1843 he gave a paper to the Royal Society surveying the state of electrical measurements and drew attention to a bridge circuit known ever since as the "Wheatstone bridge", although he clearly attributed it to S.H.Christie. Wheatstone devised the "ABC" telegraph, for use on private lines by anyone who could read, and a high-speed automatic telegraph which was adopted by the Post Office and used for many years. He also worked on the French and Belgian telegraph systems; he died when taken ill on a business visit to Paris.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    B.Bowers, 1975, Sir Charles Wheatstone FRS, London: HMSO.
    BB

    Biographical history of technology > Wheatstone, Sir Charles

  • 96 замыкать

    Русско-английский научный словарь > замыкать

  • 97 провод

    Все провода марки ХХХ, если нет других указанийAll wires to be XXX unless otherwise specified
    Провода или вводы, обозначенные ХХХ, присоединить к... — Wires or leads marked XXX to be connected to...; connect wires or leads marked XXX to...
    Провода укладываются и заделываются согласно техническим требованиям N АВ-34, если нет других указаний — Wires to be run and terminated in accordance with Spec. No. AB-34 unless otherwise specified
    Соединения цепи от... до... могут быть выполнены проводом... — Connections of the circuit section from... to... may be made by wire...

    Поставки машин и оборудования. Русско-английский словарь > провод

  • 98 индустриальная помеха

    Русско-английский словарь по информационным технологиям > индустриальная помеха

  • 99 دورة

    دَوْرَة \ circulation: the flow of gas or liquid through a closed object, esp. the movement of blood through the body. round: a regular local journey (made by a doctor, by a boy selling newspapers, by a policeman, etc.) for visiting certain houses or roads: I met the baker on his rounds, one part of a competition (in boxing, football, etc.) a boxing match of twelve rounds; the first round of the World Cup. session: a period of work or business; a formal meeting (of a court, etc.): During this session, the government will talk about three main points. turn: a circular movement: a few turns of the wheel. \ دَوْرَة \ circuit. \ _(field) Elec. Eng. \ See Also دارة \ دَوْرَة (مَجْموعة مُباريات رياضية) (دَوريّ)‏ \ tournament: a competition between many teams or players (in football, tennis, chess, etc.). \ دَوْرَة سِبَاق \ lap: one complete course round a track (in a race where several courses must be completed). \ دَوْرَة كامِلَة (للدّولاب)‏ \ revolution: a complete turn (of a wheel, etc.): A car engine may perform 4000 revolutions in a minute. \ دَوْرَة مُنْتَظِمة \ cycle: a number of events taking place in a fixed order which is repeated: The natural cycle of life is birth, marriage, getting old, death. \ دَوْرَة مِيَاه \ lavatory: a small room to wash oneself in and where one can empty the waste matter from one’s body. toilet: lavatory. water closet: rare (usu. shortened to W.C.) a small room where the waste material from one’s body is washed away down a pipe.

    Arabic-English dictionary > دورة

  • 100 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

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