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  • 121 средство

    1. device
    2. drug

    средство, угнетающее ЦНС — central depressant drug

    3. instrument
    4. instrumentality
    5. aid
    6. arrangement
    7. timesaver
    8. expedient
    9. agency
    10. aids
    11. facility
    12. mean
    13. tool
    14. vehicle
    15. means; remedy; agent; facilities

    средство, снижающее статический заряд — anti-static agent

    16. cure
    17. medium

    средство информации; средство связи — communication medium

    обращающиеся деньги; средство обращения — circulating medium

    передающая среда; средство передачи — transmission medium

    18. remedy
    19. resource
    20. way
    21. weapon
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. лекарстве (сущ.) лекарстве; лекарственное средство; медикаментах; снадобье
    2. оружии (сущ.) орудии; оружии

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > средство

  • 122 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 123 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 124 Macau

       Portuguese colonial territory in south China. Portugal's last colony, in effect, and by agreement turned over to the People's Republic of China in 1999. Since Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in 1557, this tiny territory of 11 square kilometers (7 square miles) has been a Portuguese colony headed by a Portuguese administration. Long a dependency of the Viceroyalty of Goa, Portuguese India, Macau's prosperity depended on the vicissitudes of diplomatic and trade relations between China and the West. For nearly three centuries (ca. 1557-1842), Macau was the only Western entrepót-outpost-enclave-colony on the China coast. Even after Japan expelled Western traders in the 17th century, Macau had a key role as the link between China and the West. This role changed after Great Britain seized neighboring Hong Kong (1842) as a colony. Thereafter, Macau fell into the shadow of a booming Hong Kong.
       While it was a remote dependency of Portugal in the Far East, Macau has long played a multiplicity of roles: China's window on the West, preempted in the 1840s by Hong Kong; sanctuary and refuge for various waves of refugees from China or Hong Kong; because of its peculiar international status and location, a center of vice (gambling, smuggling, prostitution, and drug traffic); and a meeting place and exchange point for the Chinese and Portuguese civilizations.
       Following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Lisbon offered to return Macau to mainland China, but the offer was refused, and negotiations between China and Portugal ensued. In the 1980s, China and Portugal negotiated a settlement whereby Portuguese sovereignty would continue until December 1999; "a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration" was the formula's general description. Chinese businessmen controlled Macau's economy, including its lucrative gambling and tourist industries, while Portugal provided nominal law and order. The settlement included a pledge by China that protection for the use of Portuguese language and the maintenance of democratic liberties would be continued for at least 50 years. In late December 1999, the last Portuguese governor-general hauled down the flag of Portugal, and the People's Republic of China assumed sovereignty over Macau. In effect, Portugal's formal overseas empire ceased with this historic change. During colonial times, Macau was known for its gambling casinos. Since its return to China, gambling has become its biggest industry and, in 2006, Macau overtook Las Vegas in gaming revenue.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Macau

  • 125 Port Wine

       Portugal's most famous wine and leading export takes its name from the city of Oporto or porto, which means "port" or "harbor" in Portuguese. Sometimes described as "the Englishman's wine," port is only one of the many wines produced in continental Portugal and the Atlantic islands. Another noted dessert wine is Madeira wine, which is produced on the island of Madeira. Port wine's history is about as long as that of Madeira wine, but the wine's development is recent compared to that of older table wines and the wines Greeks and Romans enjoyed in ancient Lusitania. During the Roman occupation of the land (ca. 210 BCE-300 CE), wine was being made from vines cultivated in the upper Douro River valley. Favorable climate and soils (schist with granite outcropping) and convenient transportation (on ships down the Douro River to Oporto) were factors that combined with increased wine production in the late 17th century to assist in the birth of port wine as a new product. Earlier names for port wine ( vinho do porto) were descriptive of location ("Wine of the Douro Bank") and how it was transported ("Wine of [Ship] Embarkation").
       Port wine, a sweet, fortified (with brandy) aperitif or dessert wine that was designed as a valuable export product for the English market, was developed first in the 1670s by a unique combination of circumstances and the action of interested parties. Several substantial English merchants who visited Oporto "discovered" that a local Douro wine was much improved when brandy ( aguardente) was added. Fortification prevented the wine from spoiling in a variety of temperatures and on the arduous sea voyages from Oporto to Great Britain. Soon port wine became a major industry of the Douro region; it involved an uneasy alliance between the English merchant-shippers at Oporto and Vila Nova de Gaia, the town across the river from Oporto, where the wine was stored and aged, and the Portuguese wine growers.
       In the 18th century, port wine became a significant element of Britain's foreign imports and of the country's establishment tastes in beverages. Port wine drinking became a hallowed tradition in Britain's elite Oxford and Cambridge Universities' colleges, which all kept port wine cellars. For Portugal, the port wine market in Britain, and later in France, Belgium, and other European countries, became a vital element in the national economy. Trade in port wine and British woolens became the key elements in the 1703 Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal.
       To lessen Portugal's growing economic dependence on Britain, regulate the production and export of the precious sweet wine, and protect the public from poor quality, the Marquis of Pombal instituted various measures for the industry. In 1756, Pombal established the General Company of Viticulture of the Upper Douro to carry out these measures. That same year, he ordered the creation of the first demarcated wine-producing region in the world, the port-wine producing Douro region. Other wine-producing countries later followed this Portuguese initiative and created demarcated wine regions to protect the quality of wine produced and to ensure national economic interests.
       The upper Douro valley region (from Barca d'Alva in Portugal to Barqueiros on the Spanish frontier) produces a variety of wines; only 40 percent of its wines are port wine, whereas 60 percent are table wines. Port wine's alcohol content varies usually between 19 and 22 percent, and, depending on the type, the wine is aged in wooden casks from two to six years and then bottled. Related to port wine's history is the history of Portuguese cork. Beginning in the 17th century, Portuguese cork, which comes from cork trees, began to be used to seal wine bottles to prevent wine from spoiling. This innovation in Portugal helped lead to the development of the cork industry. By the early 20th century, Portugal was the world's largest exporter of cork.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Port Wine

  • 126 central

    A Central pr n ( also Central Region) ( in Scotland) la région Central.
    B adj
    1 ( in the middle) [area, courtyard, district] central ; in central London dans le centre de Londres ;
    2 ( in the town centre) [house, apartment etc] situé en centre-ville ; we need a central location for the office il nous faut un bureau situé au centre-ville ;
    3 ( key) [argument, feature, message, role] principal ; to be central to sth être essentiel à qch ;
    4 Admin, Pol [control, management, government, funding, planning] central.

    Big English-French dictionary > central

  • 127 from

    from [frəm, stressed frɒm]
    de ⇒ (a), (b), (d), (f), (j), (k) à partir de ⇒ (b), (c) depuis ⇒ (b) d'après ⇒ (i)
    (a) (indicating starting point → in space) de;
    ∎ Einstein came to this country from Germany Einstein a quitté l'Allemagne pour s'établir ici;
    ∎ her parents came from Russia ses parents venaient de Russie;
    ∎ where's your friend from? d'où est ou vient votre ami?;
    ∎ there are no direct flights from Hobart il n'y a pas de vol direct à partir d'Hobart;
    ∎ the 11:10 from Cambridge le train de 11 heures 10 en provenance de Cambridge;
    ∎ the airport is about 15 kilometres from the city centre l'aéroport se trouve à 15 kilomètres environ du centre-ville;
    ∎ it rained all the way from Calais to Paris il a plu pendant tout le trajet de Calais à Paris;
    ∎ I saw him from a long way off je l'ai vu de loin;
    ∎ it takes fifteen minutes from here to my house il faut quinze minutes pour aller d'ici à chez moi;
    ∎ from town to town de ville en ville
    (b) (indicating starting point → in time) de, à partir de, depuis;
    ∎ from now on désormais, dorénavant;
    ∎ from that day depuis ce jour, à partir de ce jour;
    ∎ from morning till night du matin au soir;
    ∎ from the age of four à partir de quatre ans;
    ∎ she was unhappy from her first day at boarding school elle a été malheureuse dès son premier jour à l'internat;
    ∎ from the start dès ou depuis le début;
    ∎ a week from today dans huit jours;
    ∎ where will we be a year from now? où serons-nous dans un an?;
    ∎ she remembered him from her childhood elle se souvenait de lui dans son enfance;
    ∎ we've got food left over from last night nous avons des restes d'hier soir
    (c) (indicating starting point → in price, quantity) à partir de;
    ∎ potatoes from 50 pence a kilo des pommes de terre à partir de 50 pence le kilo;
    ∎ knives from £2 each des couteaux à partir de 2 livres la pièce;
    ∎ the price has been increased from 50 pence to 60 pence on a augmenté le prix de 50 pence à 60 pence;
    ∎ 6 from 14 is 8 6 ôté de 14 donne 8;
    ∎ we went from three employees to fifteen in a year nous sommes passés de trois à quinze employés en un an;
    ∎ the bird lays from four to six eggs l'oiseau pond de quatre à six œufs;
    ∎ every flavour of ice-cream from vanilla to pistachio tous les parfums de glace de la vanille à la pistache
    (d) (indicating origin, source) de;
    ∎ who's the letter from? de qui est la lettre?;
    ∎ from… (on letter, parcel) expéditeur/expéditrice…;
    ∎ don't tell her that the flowers are from me ne lui dites pas que les fleurs viennent de moi;
    ∎ tell her that from me dites-lui cela de ma part;
    ∎ I got a phone call from her yesterday j'ai reçu un coup de fil d'elle hier;
    ∎ he got the idea from a book he read il a trouvé l'idée dans un livre qu'il a lu;
    ∎ where did you get the ring from? où avez-vous eu la bague?;
    ∎ you can get a money order from the post office vous pouvez avoir un mandat à la poste;
    ∎ I bought my piano from a neighbour j'ai acheté mon piano à un voisin;
    ∎ you mustn't borrow money from them vous ne devez pas leur emprunter de l'argent;
    ∎ she stole some documents from the ministry elle a volé des documents au ministère;
    ∎ who stole the key from her? qui lui a volé la clef?;
    ∎ I heard about it from the landlady c'est la propriétaire qui m'en a parlé;
    ∎ a scene from a play une scène d'une pièce;
    ∎ a quotation from Shakespeare une citation tirée de Shakespeare;
    ∎ he translates from English into French il traduit d'anglais en français;
    ∎ she still has injuries resulting from the crash elle a encore des blessures qui datent de l'accident;
    ∎ she's been away from work for a week ça fait une semaine qu'elle n'est pas allée au travail;
    ∎ they returned from their holidays yesterday ils sont rentrés de vacances hier;
    ∎ the man from the Inland Revenue le monsieur du fisc
    (e) (off, out of)
    ∎ she took a book from the shelf elle a pris un livre sur l'étagère;
    ∎ he drank straight from the bottle il a bu à même la bouteille;
    ∎ she drew a gun from her pocket elle sortit un revolver de sa poche;
    ∎ he took a beer from the fridge il a pris une bière dans le frigo;
    ∎ guaranteed to remove stains from all surfaces (in advertisement) enlève les taches sur toutes les surfaces
    (f) (indicating position, location) de;
    ∎ from the top you can see the whole city du haut on voit toute la ville;
    ∎ you get a great view from the bridge on a une très belle vue du pont;
    ∎ the rock juts out from the cliff le rocher dépasse de la falaise
    (g) (indicating cause, reason)
    ∎ you can get sick from drinking the water vous pouvez tomber malade en buvant l'eau;
    ∎ his back hurt from lifting heavy boxes il avait mal au dos après avoir soulevé des gros cartons;
    ∎ I guessed she was Australian from the way she spoke j'ai deviné qu'elle était australienne à sa façon de parler;
    ∎ I know him from seeing him at the club je le reconnais pour l'avoir vu au cercle;
    ∎ he died from grief il est mort de chagrin;
    ∎ to act from conviction agir par conviction
    ∎ they are made from flour ils sont faits à base de farine;
    ∎ Calvados is made from apples le calvados est fait avec des pommes;
    ∎ she played the piece from memory elle joua le morceau de mémoire;
    ∎ I speak from personal experience je sais de quoi je parle
    (i) (judging by) d'après;
    ∎ from the way she talks you'd think she were the boss à l'entendre, on croirait que c'est elle le patron;
    ∎ from the way she sings you'd think she were a professional à l'entendre chanter on dirait que c'est son métier;
    ∎ from his looks you might suppose that… à le voir on dirait que…;
    ∎ from what I can see… à ce que je vois…;
    ∎ from what I gather… d'après ce que j'ai cru comprendre…
    ∎ it's no different from riding a bike c'est comme faire du vélo;
    ∎ how do you tell one from the other? comment les reconnais-tu l'un de l'autre?
    (k) (indicating prevention, protection) de;
    ∎ she saved me from drowning elle m'a sauvé de la noyade;
    ∎ we sheltered from the rain in a cave nous nous sommes abrités de la pluie dans une caverne;
    ∎ they were hidden from view on ne les voyait pas

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > from

  • 128 to

    to [tu:, unstressed tə]
    à ⇒ 1A (a)-(c), 1A (e), 1B (b), 1D (a), 1D (l) en ⇒ 1A (c) jusqu'à ⇒ 1A (d), 1B (b) contre ⇒ 1A (e) pour ⇒ 1C (f), 1C (g), 1D (b) de ⇒ 1D (i)
    A.
    ∎ to go to school/the cinema aller à l'école/au cinéma;
    ∎ let's go to town allons en ville;
    ∎ he climbed to the top il est monté jusqu'au sommet ou jusqu'en haut;
    ∎ she ran to where her mother was sitting elle a couru (jusqu')à l'endroit où sa mère était assise;
    ∎ we've been to it before nous y sommes déjà allés;
    ∎ the vase fell to the ground le vase est tombé par ou à terre;
    ∎ I invited them to dinner je les ai invités à dîner;
    ∎ he returned to his work il est retourné à son ou il a repris son travail;
    ∎ let's go to Susan's allons chez Susan;
    ∎ to go to the doctor or doctor's aller chez le médecin;
    ∎ he pointed to the door il a pointé son doigt vers la porte;
    ∎ the road to the south la route du sud;
    ∎ our house is a mile to the south notre maison est à un mile au sud;
    ∎ it's 12 miles to the nearest town (from here) nous sommes à 12 miles de la ville la plus proche; (from there) c'est à 12 miles de la ville la plus proche;
    ∎ what's the best way to the station? quel est le meilleur chemin pour aller à la gare?;
    ∎ she turned his photograph to the wall elle a retourné sa photo contre le mur;
    ∎ I sat with my back to her j'étais assis lui tournant le dos;
    ∎ tell her to her face dites-le-lui en face
    (b) (indicating location, position) à;
    ∎ the street parallel to this one la rue parallèle à celle-ci;
    ∎ she lives next door to us elle habite à côté de chez nous;
    ∎ to one side d'un côté;
    ∎ to the left/right à gauche/droite;
    ∎ the rooms to the back les chambres de derrière;
    ∎ to leave sth to one side laisser qch de côté
    ∎ to Madrid à Madrid;
    ∎ to Le Havre au Havre;
    ∎ to France en France;
    ∎ to Argentina en Argentine;
    ∎ to Japan au Japon;
    ∎ to the United States aux États-Unis;
    ∎ I'm off to Paris je pars à ou pour Paris;
    ∎ the road to Chicago la route de Chicago;
    ∎ on the way to Milan en allant à Milan, sur la route de Milan;
    ∎ planes to and from Europe les vols à destination et en provenance de l'Europe
    (d) (indicating age, amount or level reached) jusqu'à;
    ∎ the snow came (up) to her knees la neige lui arrivait aux genoux;
    ∎ unemployment is up to nearly 9 percent le (taux de) chômage atteint presque les 9 pour cent;
    ∎ they cut expenses down to a minimum ils ont réduit les frais au minimum;
    ∎ she can count (up) to one hundred elle sait compter jusqu'à cent;
    ∎ it's accurate to the millimetre c'est exact au millimètre près;
    ∎ it weighs 8 to 9 pounds ça pèse entre 8 et 9 livres;
    ∎ moderate to cool temperatures des températures douces ou fraîches;
    ∎ to live to a great age vivre jusqu'à un âge avancé
    ∎ she pinned the brooch to her dress elle a épinglé la broche sur sa robe;
    ∎ they sat in bumper-to-bumper traffic ils étaient coincés pare-chocs contre pare-chocs;
    ∎ they danced cheek to cheek ils dansaient joue contre joue;
    ∎ he clutched the baby to his chest il a serré l'enfant contre lui
    B.
    ∎ it's ten minutes to three il est trois heures moins dix;
    ∎ we left at a quarter to six nous sommes partis à six heures moins le quart;
    ∎ it's twenty to il est moins vingt;
    ∎ how long is it to dinner? on dîne dans combien de temps?;
    ∎ there are only two weeks to Christmas il ne reste que deux semaines avant Noël
    ∎ from Tuesday night to Thursday morning du mardi soir (jusqu')au jeudi matin;
    ∎ from morning to night du matin au soir;
    ∎ from March to June de mars (jusqu')à juin;
    ∎ a nine-to-five job des horaires mpl de fonctionnaire;
    ∎ it was three years ago to the day since I saw her last il y a trois ans jour pour jour que je l'ai vue pour la dernière fois;
    ∎ to this day jusqu'à ce jour, jusqu'à aujourd'hui;
    ∎ he was brave (up) to the last il a été courageux jusqu'au bout ou jusqu'à la fin;
    ∎ from day to day de jour en jour;
    ∎ I read it from beginning to end je l'ai lu du début (jusqu')à la fin;
    ∎ from bad to worse de mal en pis;
    ∎ I do everything from scrubbing the floor to keeping the books je fais absolument tout, depuis le ménage jusqu'à la comptabilité
    C.
    ∎ to talk parler;
    ∎ to open ouvrir;
    ∎ to answer répondre
    ∎ she lived to be a hundred elle a vécu jusqu'à cent ans;
    ∎ we are to complete the work by Monday nous devons finir le travail pour lundi;
    ∎ she went on to become a brilliant guitarist elle est ensuite devenue une excellente guitariste;
    ∎ I finally accepted, (only) to find that they had changed their mind lorsque je me suis décidé à accepter, ils avaient changé d'avis;
    ∎ she turned round to find him standing right in front of her lorsqu'elle s'est retournée, elle s'est retrouvée nez à nez avec lui;
    ∎ he left the house never to return to it again il quitta la maison pour ne plus y revenir;
    ∎ he dared to speak out against injustice il a osé s'élever contre l'injustice;
    ∎ you can leave if you want to vous pouvez partir si vous voulez;
    ∎ why? - because I told you to pourquoi? - parce que je t'ai dit de le faire;
    ∎ would you like to come? - we'd love to voulez-vous venir? - avec plaisir ou oh, oui!;
    ∎ you ought to vous devriez le faire;
    ∎ we shall have to il le faudra bien, nous serons bien obligés
    ∎ I have a lot to do j'ai beaucoup à faire;
    ∎ I have a letter to write j'ai une lettre à écrire;
    ∎ that's no reason to leave ce n'est pas une raison pour partir;
    ∎ I haven't got money to burn je n'ai pas d'argent à jeter par les fenêtres;
    ∎ the first to complain le premier à se plaindre;
    ∎ the house to be sold la maison à vendre;
    ∎ there was not a sound to be heard on n'entendait pas le moindre bruit;
    ∎ he isn't one to forget his friends il n'est pas homme à oublier ses amis;
    ∎ that's the way to do it voilà comment il faut faire
    ∎ I'm happy/sad to see her go je suis content/triste de la voir partir;
    ∎ pleased to meet you enchanté (de faire votre connaissance);
    ∎ difficult/easy to do difficile/facile à faire;
    ∎ it was strange to see her again c'était bizarre de la revoir;
    ∎ she's too proud to apologize elle est trop fière pour s'excuser;
    ∎ he's old enough to understand il est assez grand pour comprendre
    (e) (after "how", "which", "where" etc)
    ∎ do you know where to go? savez-vous où aller?;
    ∎ he told me how to get there il m'a dit comment y aller;
    ∎ can you tell me when to get off? pourriez-vous me dire quand je dois descendre?;
    ∎ she can't decide whether to go or not elle n'arrive pas à décider si elle va y aller ou non
    ∎ I did it to annoy her je l'ai fait exprès pour l'énerver;
    ∎ to answer that question, we must… pour répondre à cette question, il nous faut…
    ∎ to be honest/frank pour être honnête/franc;
    ∎ to put it another way en d'autres termes
    ∎ oh, to be in England! ah, si je pouvais être en Angleterre!;
    ∎ and to think I nearly married him! quand je pense que j'ai failli l'épouser!
    ∎ unions to strike les syndicats s'apprêtent à déclencher la grève;
    ∎ Russia to negotiate with Baltic States la Russie va négocier avec les pays Baltes
    D.
    (a) (indicating intended recipient, owner) à;
    ∎ I showed the picture to her je lui ai montré la photo;
    ∎ I showed it to her je le lui ai montré;
    ∎ show it to her montrez-le-lui;
    ∎ the person I spoke to la personne à qui j'ai parlé;
    ∎ that book belongs to her ce livre lui appartient;
    ∎ be kind to him/to animals soyez gentil avec lui/bon envers les animaux;
    ∎ what's it to him? qu'est-ce que cela peut lui faire?;
    ∎ it doesn't matter to her ça lui est égal;
    ∎ did you have a room to yourself? avais-tu une chambre à toi ou pour toi tout seul?;
    ∎ to keep sth to oneself garder qch pour soi;
    ∎ I said to myself je me suis dit;
    ∎ he is known to the police il est connu de la police
    ∎ $2 is a lot of money to some people il y a des gens pour qui 2 dollars représentent beaucoup d'argent;
    ∎ it sounds suspicious to me cela me semble bizarre;
    ∎ it didn't make sense to him ça n'avait aucun sens pour lui
    ∎ with a view to clarifying matters dans l'intention d'éclaircir la situation;
    ∎ it's all to no purpose tout cela ne sert à rien ou est en vain
    ∎ the light changed to red le feu est passé au rouge;
    ∎ the noise drove him to distraction le bruit le rendait fou;
    ∎ the rain turned to snow la pluie avait fait place à la neige;
    ∎ her admiration turned to disgust son admiration s'est transformée en dégoût;
    ∎ (much) to my relief/surprise/delight à mon grand soulagement/mon grand étonnement/ma grande joie;
    ∎ (much) to my horror, I found the money was missing c'est avec horreur que je me suis rendu compte que l'argent avait disparu;
    ∎ the meat was done to perfection la viande était cuite à la perfection;
    ∎ smashed to pieces brisé en mille morceaux;
    ∎ moved to tears ému (jusqu')aux larmes;
    ∎ he was beaten to death il a été battu à mort;
    ∎ they starved to death ils sont morts de faim;
    ∎ the court sentenced him to death le juge l'a condamné à mort;
    ∎ she rose rapidly to power elle est arrivée au pouvoir très rapidement;
    ∎ she sang the baby to sleep elle a chanté jusqu'à ce que le bébé s'endorme
    ∎ the answer to your question la réponse à votre question;
    ∎ a hazard to your health un danger pour votre santé;
    ∎ what's your reaction to all this? comment réagissez-vous à tout ça?;
    ∎ no one was sympathetic to his ideas ses idées ne plaisaient à personne;
    ∎ what would you say to a game of bridge? que diriez-vous d'un bridge?, si on faisait un bridge?;
    ∎ that's all there is to it c'est aussi simple que ça;
    ∎ there's nothing to it il n'y a rien de plus simple;
    ∎ there's nothing or there isn't a lot to these cameras ils ne sont pas bien compliqués, ces appareils photos;
    ∎ Commerce to translating annual report: $300 (on bill) traduction du rapport annuel: 300 dollars;
    ∎ to services rendered (on bill) pour services rendus
    ∎ there are 16 ounces to a pound il y a 16 onces dans une livre;
    ∎ there are 6 francs to the dollar un dollar vaut 6 francs;
    ∎ there are 25 chocolates to a box il y a 25 chocolats dans chaque ou par boîte;
    ∎ one cup of sugar to every three cups of fruit une tasse de sucre pour trois tasses de fruits;
    ∎ three is to six as six is to twelve trois est à six ce que six est à douze;
    ∎ Milan beat Madrid by 4 (points) to 3 Milan a battu Madrid 4 (points) à 3;
    ∎ I'll bet 100 to 1 je parierais 100 contre 1;
    ∎ the odds are 1000 to 1 against it happening again il y a 1 chance sur 1000 que cela se produise à nouveau;
    ∎ the vote was 6 to 3 il y avait 6 voix contre 3
    ∎ how many miles do you get to the gallon? ≃ vous faites combien de litres au cent?
    ∎ inferior to inférieur à;
    ∎ they compare her to Callas on la compare à (la) Callas;
    ∎ that's nothing (compared) to what I've seen ce n'est rien à côté de ce que j'ai vu;
    ∎ inflation is nothing (compared) to last year l'inflation n'est rien à côté de ou en comparaison de l'année dernière;
    ∎ as a cook she's second to none comme cuisinière on ne fait pas mieux;
    ∎ to prefer sth to sth préférer qch à qch
    (i) (of) de;
    ∎ the key to this door la clé de cette porte;
    ∎ he's secretary to the director/to the committee c'est le secrétaire du directeur/du comité;
    ∎ she's assistant to the president c'est l'adjointe du président;
    ∎ the French ambassador to Algeria l'ambassadeur français en Algérie;
    ∎ ambassador to the King of Thailand ambassadeur auprès du roi de Thaïlande;
    ∎ she's interpreter to the president c'est l'interprète du président;
    ∎ Susan, sister to Mary Susan, sœur de Mary;
    ∎ he's been like a father to me il est comme un père pour moi
    ∎ to his way of thinking, to his mind à son avis;
    ∎ to hear him talk, you'd think he was an expert à l'entendre parler, on croirait que c'est un expert;
    ∎ to my knowledge, she never met him elle ne l'a jamais rencontré (pour) autant que je sache;
    ∎ it's to your advantage to do it c'est (dans) ton intérêt de le faire;
    ∎ the climate is not to my liking le climat ne me plaît pas;
    ∎ add salt to taste salez selon votre goût ou à volonté;
    ∎ she made out a cheque to the amount of £15 elle a fait un chèque de 15 livres
    (k) (indicating accompaniment, simultaneity)
    ∎ we danced to live music nous avons dansé sur la musique d'un orchestre;
    ∎ in time to the music en mesure avec la musique
    ∎ let's drink to his health buvons à sa santé;
    ∎ (here's) to your health! à la vôtre!;
    ∎ (here's) to the bride! à la mariée!;
    ∎ to my family (in dedication) à ma famille;
    ∎ his book is dedicated to his mother son livre est dédié à sa mère;
    ∎ a monument to the war dead un monument aux morts
    E.
    ∎ add flour to the list ajoutez de la farine sur la liste;
    ∎ add 3 to 6 additionnez 3 et 6, ajoutez 3 à 6;
    ∎ in addition to Charles, there were three women en plus de Charles, il y avait trois femmes
    ∎ to the power… à la puissance…;
    ∎ 2 to the 3rd power, 2 to the 3rd 2 (à la) puissance 3
    (a) (closed) fermé;
    ∎ the wind blew the door to un coup de vent a fermé la porte
    ∎ to come to revenir à soi, reprendre connaissance
    ∎ to bring a ship to mettre un bateau en panne
    ∎ to go to and fro aller et venir, se promener de long en large; (shuttle bus etc) faire la navette;
    ∎ to swing to and fro se balancer d'avant en arrière

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См. также в других словарях:

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