lathe+work

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раста́чивание применя́ется с це́лью получе́ния отве́рстия за́данного диа́метра — boring enlarges the (drilled) hole to specification requirements [to specified size]

алма́зное раста́чивание — diamond boring

раста́чивание вну́тренних кана́вок — recessing

раста́чивание на ко́нус — taper boring, boring of tapered holes

раста́чивание на тока́рном станке́ — lathe boring, boring in the lathe

черново́е раста́чивание — rough boring

чистово́е раста́чивание — finish boring

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Public utilities

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He was the third child and the eldest of three boys born to John Murdoch and Anna Bruce. His father, a millwright and joiner, spelled his name Murdock on moving to England. He was educated for some years at Old Cumnock Parish School and in 1777, with his father, he built a "wooden horse", supposed to have been a form of cycle. In 1777 he set out for the Soho manufactory of Boulton \& Watt, where he quickly found employment, Boulton supposedly being impressed by the lad's hat. This was oval and made of wood, and young William had turned it himself on a lathe of his own manufacture. Murdock quickly became Boulton \& Watt's representative in Cornwall, where there was a flourishing demand for steam-engines. He lived at Redruth during this period.

It is said that a number of the inventions generally ascribed to James Watt are in fact as much due to Murdock as to Watt. Examples are the piston and slide valve and the sun-and-planet gearing. A number of other inventions are attributed to Murdock alone: typical of these is the oscillating cylinder engine which obviated the need for an overhead beam.

In about 1784 he planned a steam-driven road carriage of which he made a working model. He also planned a high-pressure non-condensing engine. The model carriage was demonstrated before Murdock's friends and travelled at a speed of 6–8 mph (10–13 km/h). Boulton and Watt were both antagonistic to their employees' developing independent inventions, and when in 1786 Murdock set out with his model for the Patent Office, having received no reply to a letter he had sent to Watt, Boulton intercepted him on the open road near Exeter and dissuaded him from going any further.

In 1785 he married Mary Painter, daughter of a mine captain. She bore him four children, two of whom died in infancy, those surviving eventually joining their father at the Soho Works. Murdock was a great believer in pneumatic power: he had a pneumatic bell-push at Sycamore House, his home near Soho. The pattern-makers lathe at the Soho Works worked for thirty-five years from an air motor. He also conceived the idea of a vacuum piston engine to exhaust a pipe, later developed by the London Pneumatic Despatch Company's railway and the forerunner of the atmospheric railway.

Another field in which Murdock was a pioneer was the gas industry. In 1791, in Redruth, he was experimenting with different feedstocks in his home-cum-office in Cross Street: of wood, peat and coal, he preferred the last. He designed and built in the backyard of his house a prototype generator, washer, storage and distribution plant, and publicized the efficiency of coal gas as an illuminant by using it to light his own home. In 1794 or 1795 he informed Boulton and Watt of his experimental work and of its success, suggesting that a patent should be applied for. James Watt Junior was now in the firm and was against patenting the idea since they had had so much trouble with previous patents and had been involved in so much litigation. He refused Murdock's request and for a short time Murdock left the firm to go home to his father's mill. Boulton \& Watt soon recognized the loss of a valuable servant and, in a short time, he was again employed at Soho, now as Engineer and Superintendent at the increased salary of £300 per year plus a 1 per cent commission. From this income, he left £14,000 when he died in 1839.

In 1798 the workshops of Boulton and Watt were permanently lit by gas, starting with the foundry building. The 180 ft (55 m) façade of the Soho works was illuminated by gas for the Peace of Paris in June 1814. By 1804, Murdock had brought his apparatus to a point where Boulton \& Watt were able to canvas for orders. Murdock continued with the company after the death of James Watt in 1819, but retired in 1830 and continued to live at Sycamore House, Handsworth, near Birmingham.

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подви́жный люне́т передвига́ется вме́сте с каре́ткой станка́ — the follow-rest travels with the lathe carriage

люне́т предотвраща́ет вибра́цию обраба́тываемой дета́ли — the steadyrest obviates chattering

двухкулачко́вый люне́т — two-point steadyrest

люне́т для тока́рных рабо́т — tuning steadyrest

люне́т для шлифова́льных рабо́т — grinding steadyrest

пла́шечный люне́т — aw-type steadyrest

SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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He was the eldest son of Wolf Christopher Polhamma, a merchant. The father died in 1669 and the son was sent by his stepfather to an uncle in Stockholm who found him a place in the Deutsche Rechenschule. After the death of his uncle, he was forced to find employment, which he did with the Biorenklou family near Uppsala where he eventually became a kind of estate bailiff. It was during this period that he started to work with a lathe, a forge and at carpentry, displaying great technical ability. He realized that without further education he had little chance of making anything of his life, and accordingly, in 1687, he registered at the University of Uppsala where he studied astronomy and mathematics, remaining there for three years. He also repaired two astronomical pendulum clocks as well as the decrepit medieval clock in the cathedral. After a year's work he had this clock running properly: this was his breakthrough. He was summoned to Stockholm where the King awarded him a salary of 500 dalers a year as an encouragement to further efforts. Around this time, one of increasing mechanization and when mining was Sweden's principal industry, Pohlem made a model of a hoist frame for mines and the Mines Authority encouraged him to develop his ideas. In 1693 Polhem completed the Blankstot hoist at the Stora Kopparberg mine, which attracted great interest on the European continent.

From 1694 to 1696 Polhem toured factories, mills and mines abroad in Germany, Holland, England and France, studying machinery of all kinds and meeting many foreign engineers. In 1698 he was appointed Director of Mining Engineering in Sweden, and in 1700 he became Master of Construction in the Falu Mine. He installed the Karl XII hoist there, powered by moving beams from a distant water-wheel. His plan of 1697 for all the machinery at the Falu mine to be driven by three large and remote water-wheels was never completed.

In 1707 he was invited by the Elector of Hanover to visit the mines in the Harz district, where he successfully explained many of his ideas which were adopted by the local engineers. In 1700, in conjunction with Gabriel Stierncrona, he founded the Stiersunds Bruk at Husby in Southern Dalarna, a factory for the mass production of metal goods in iron, steel and bronze. Simple articles such as pans, trays, bowls, knives, scissors and mirrors were made there, together with the more sophisticated Polhem lock and the Stiersunds clock. Production was based on water power. Gear cutting for the clocks, shaping hammers for plates, file cutting and many other operations were all water powered, as was a roller mill for the sheet metal used in the factory. He also designed textile machinery such as stocking looms and spinning frames and machines for the manufacture of ribbons and other things.

In many of his ideas Polhem was in advance of his time and Swedish country society was unable to absorb them. This was largely the reason for the Stiersund project being only a partial success. Polhem, too, was of a disputatious nature, self-opinionated almost to the point of conceit. He was a prolific writer, leaving over 20,000 pages of manuscript notes, drafts, essays on a wide range of subjects, which included building, brick-making, barrels, wheel-making, bell-casting, organ-building, methods of stopping a horse from bolting and a curious tap "to prevent serving maids from sneaking wine from the cask", the construction of ploughs and threshing machines. His major work, Kort Berattelse om de Fornamsta Mechaniska Inventioner (A Brief Account of the Most Famous Inventions), was printed in 1729 and is the main source of knowledge about his technological work. He is also known for his "mechanical alphabet", a collection of some eighty wooden models of mechanisms for educational purposes. It is in the National Museum of Science and Technology in Stockholm.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Metallurgy

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Edward Geisler Herbert was educated at Nottingham High School in 1876–87, and at University College, London, in 1887–90, graduating with a BSc in Physics in 1889 and remaining for a further year to take an engineering course. He began his career as a premium apprentice at the Nottingham works of Messrs James Hill \& Co, manufacturers of lace machinery. In 1892 he became a partner with Charles Richardson in the firm of Richardson \& Herbert, electrical engineers in Manchester, and when this partnership was dissolved in 1895 he carried on the business in his own name and began to produce machine tools. He remained as Managing Director of this firm, reconstituted in 1902 as a limited liability company styled Edward G.Herbert Ltd, until his retirement in 1928. He was joined by Charles Fletcher (1868–1930), who as joint Managing Director contributed greatly to the commercial success of the firm, which specialized in the manufacture of small machine tools and testing machinery.

Around 1900 Herbert had discovered that hacksaw machines cut very much quicker when only a few teeth are in operation, and in 1902 he patented a machine which utilized this concept by automatically changing the angle of incidence of the blade as cutting proceeded. These saws were commercially successful, but by 1912, when his original patents were approaching expiry, Herbert and Fletcher began to develop improved methods of applying the rapid-saw concept. From this work the well-known Rapidor and Manchester saws emerged soon after the First World War. A file-testing machine invented by Herbert before the war made an autographic record of the life and performance of the file and brought him into close contact with the file and tool steel manufacturers of Sheffield. A tool-steel testing machine, working like a lathe, was introduced when high-speed steel had just come into general use, and Herbert became a prominent member of the Cutting Tools Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1919, carrying out many investigations for that body and compiling four of its Reports published between 1927 and 1933. He was the first to conceive the idea of the "tool-work" thermocouple which allowed cutting tool temperatures to be accurately measured. For this advance he was awarded the Thomas Hawksley Gold Medal of the Institution in 1926.

His best-known invention was the Pendulum Hardness Tester, introduced in 1923. This used a spherical indentor, which was rolled over, rather than being pushed into, the surface being examined, by a small, heavy, inverted pendulum. The period of oscillation of this pendulum provided a sensitive measurement of the specimen's hardness. Following this work Herbert introduced his "Cloudburst" surface hardening process, in which hardened steel engineering components were bombarded by steel balls moving at random in all directions at very high velocities like gaseous molecules. This treatment superhardened the surface of the components, improved their resistance to abrasion, and revealed any surface defects. After bombardment the hardness of the superficially hardened layers increased slowly and spontaneously by a room-temperature ageing process. After his retirement in 1928 Herbert devoted himself to a detailed study of the influence of intense magnetic fields on the hardening of steels.

Herbert was a member of several learned societies, including the Manchester Association of Engineers, the Institute of Metals, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He retained a seat on the Board of his company from his retirement until the end of his life.

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ASD / RTS

1) General subject: dog lead, dog-lead, harness, lead, leash

2) Naval: rod (в гребном колесе)

3) Medicine: habenula (эпиталамуса)

4) American: snell

5) Engineering: actuating pin, dog, drive dog, drive piece, drive tang, driver pin, guide

6) Agriculture: drag bar, dragbar (см. тж, drawbar), draw-bar, tow bar

7) Railway term: locking bolt (замыкающего стержня), locking dog (замыкающего стержня), locking stud (замыкающего стержня), shackle link

8) Automobile industry: driver, pinion cage, pinion carrier, pinion frame, tenon, tongue, work driver

9) Textile: driving bracket (цилиндра вязальной машины), follower

10) Fishery: gangling, ganglion, leader, snood (к которому прикрепляется крючок)

11) Astronautics: carrier

12) Mechanic engineering: spider

13) Silicates: drawbar

14) Automation: driving dog, work carrier, workdriver

15) Makarov: lathe carrier, tang (хвоста)

16) Fisheries: hooklink (крепёж для крючка), tippet

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1. ( единичное орудие труда) tool; ( собирательно) tools, tooling

зата́чивать (ре́жущий) инструме́нт — grind [sharpen] a (cutting) tool

2. (медицинский, музыкальный, научный) instrument

абрази́вный инструме́нт — abrasive tool(s)

пра́вить абрази́вный инструме́нт — true an abrasive tool

абрази́вный, ги́бкий инструме́нт — coated abrasive

алма́зный инструме́нт — diamond tool

астрономи́ческий инструме́нт — astronomical instrument

астрофизи́ческий инструме́нт — astrophysical instrument

безопа́сный инструме́нт (не дающий искру при ударе, немагнитный, некорродирующий) — safety tool(s)

бурово́й инструме́нт — boring [drilling] tool(s)

вырубно́й инструме́нт — blanking tool(s)

высотоме́рный инструме́нт — height-measuring device, height-finding instrument

геодези́ческий инструме́нт — geodetic instrument

геодези́ческий, высокото́чный инструме́нт — first-order geodetic instrument

ги́бочный инструме́нт — bending tool(s)

горново́й инструме́нт — forge tool(s)

гравирова́льный инструме́нт — etching device, (en)graver

давя́щий инструме́нт маш. — spinning tool

дели́тельный инструме́нт — indexing head

деревообраба́тывающий инструме́нт — wood-working tool(s)

инструме́нт для ампути́рования ( в ветеринарии) — ablator

инструме́нт для гла́жения кож. — ironing tool

инструме́нт для горя́чего клейме́ния кож. — heated tool

инструме́нт для мездре́ния кож. — scoop

инструме́нт для монтажа́ цепи́ авто — chain tool

инструме́нт для отде́лки ко́жи — currier's tool

инструме́нт для пра́вки шлифова́льных круго́в — truing tool, wheel dresser, truing crusher

инструме́нт для раска́тки труб — tube expander

дово́дочный инструме́нт — lapping [finishing] tool(s)

дыропробивно́й инструме́нт — punch

зажи́мный инструме́нт — clamping [gripping] tool(s)

зуборе́зный инструме́нт — gear cutting tool(s)

контро́льный инструме́нт — inspection tool(s)

концево́й инструме́нт — point tool

кузне́чный инструме́нт — blacksmiths [forging] tool(s)

лови́льный инструме́нт

1. стр. grab iron

2. геол. fishing tool

меридиа́нный инструме́нт — meridian [transit] instrument, transit

мери́тельный инструме́нт — measuring tool(s)

мери́тельный, этало́нный инструме́нт — master measuring tool

металлокерами́ческий инструме́нт — cermet(-tipped) tool(s)

металлоре́жущий инструме́нт — metal-cutting tool(s)

механизи́рованный инструме́нт — power tool(s)

монта́жный инструме́нт — erection tool(s), installation (kit of) tools

обраба́тывающий инструме́нт — machining tool(s)

окола́чивающий инструме́нт кож. — beating tool

опрессо́вочный инструме́нт ( для беспаечного соединения проводов) — compression tool

отде́лочный инструме́нт — finishing tool(s)

пасса́жный инструме́нт — meridian [transit] instrument, transit

пасса́жный, горизонта́льный инструме́нт — horizontal meridian [transit] instrument

пасса́жный, интерференцио́нный инструме́нт — interference meridian [transit] instrument

пасса́жный инструме́нт с ло́маной трубо́й — bent [prismatic] transit instrument, bent [broken-telescope] transit

переплё́тный инструме́нт — book-binding tool

печно́й инструме́нт — furnace tool(s)

пневмати́ческий инструме́нт — pneumatic [air-operated] tool(s)

по́довый инструме́нт — bottom tool

полирова́льный инструме́нт — polishing tool

породоразруша́ющий инструме́нт ( непосредственно разрушает породу при бурении скважин) — drill bits and diamond tool(s)

прецизио́нный инструме́нт — precision instrument

путево́й инструме́нт — track instrument

радиоастрономи́ческий инструме́нт — radioastronomical instrument

разме́точный инструме́нт — marking tool(s)

ре́жущий инструме́нт — cutting tool(s)

оснаща́ть ре́жущий инструме́нт твердоспла́вной пласти́нкой — carbide-tip a tool

ре́жущий, многоле́звийный инструме́нт — multipoint [multiedged] (cutting) tool

ре́жущий, одноле́звийный инструме́нт — single-point [single-edged] (cutting) tool

ре́жущий, самоустана́вливающийся инструме́нт — self-aligning (cutting) tool

резьбонака́тный инструме́нт — thread-rolling tool

резьбонарезно́й инструме́нт — thread-cutting tool

ручно́й инструме́нт — hand tool(s)

слеса́рный инструме́нт — bench (work) tool(s)

со́лнечный инструме́нт — solar instrument

съё́мочный инструме́нт геод. — surveying instrument

твердоспла́вный инструме́нт — cemented-carbide [hard-carbide] (tipped) tool(s)

технологи́ческий инструме́нт ( для бурения скважины) — drill string, drilling supply

тока́рный инструме́нт — lathe [turning] tool(s)

то́чный инструме́нт — precision tool(s)

угломе́рный инструме́нт — angular [azimuth] instrument, azimuth-indicating device, angle gauge, subtense instrument, anglemeter

уда́рный инструме́нт — impact [percussive] tool

универса́льный инструме́нт — universal [multipurpose] tool(s)

формо́вочный инструме́нт — moulder tool(s)

чертё́жный инструме́нт — draftsman's [draughtsman's] instrument

шлифова́льный инструме́нт — polishing tool(s)

шаржи́ровать шлифова́льный инструме́нт — charge a polishing tool

шта́тный инструме́нт — authorized [issue] tools

шурова́льный инструме́нт — firing tool

эксплуатацио́нный инструме́нт — maintenance tools

электрифици́рованный инструме́нт — electric hand tools

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1. ( зажимный) маш. chuck

зажима́ть дета́ль в патро́н — clamp the work (piece) in a chuck, chuck the work (piece)

патро́н слу́жит для закрепле́ния загото́вки или инструме́нта — a chuck is used to hold [secure] the part or tool

устана́вливать (дета́ль) в патро́н — mount (the part) in the chuck

2. свет. lamp-holder

3. ( для оружия) cartridge

патро́н аэрдо́кс горн. — airdox blaster

быстросме́нный патро́н — quick-change chuck

винтово́й патро́н — screw chuck

патро́н гидро́кс горн. — hydrox blaster

дави́льный патро́н маш. — (spinning) mould

патро́н кардо́кс горн. — cardox blaster

кулачко́вый патро́н — jaw chuck

ла́мповый патро́н — lamp-holder

ла́мповый, винтово́й патро́н — screwed lamp-holder

ла́мповый, штыково́й патро́н — bayonet lamp-holder

обжи́мный патро́н ( для закатки крышек консервных банок) — squeezer

оксиликви́тный патро́н горн. — liquid-oxygen cartridge

патро́н перфора́тора, взрывно́й — firing cartridge

пневмати́ческий патро́н — air(-operated) chuck

поводко́вый патро́н — driver [centre] chuck

патро́н постоя́нной осу́шки — dehydrator plug

патро́н предохрани́теля — fuse cartridge

разжи́мный патро́н — expanding chuck

регенерати́вный патро́н ( респиратора) — regenerative canister, carbon-dioxide absorbent chamber

переснаряжа́ть регенерати́вный патро́н — recharge a regenerative canister

снаряжа́ть регенерати́вный патро́н — charge a regenerative canister

резьбонарезно́й патро́н — thread-cutting chuck

патро́н руби́льной маши́ны лес. — chipper spout

рыча́жный патро́н — lever-operated chuck

самоцентри́рующий патро́н — self-centring chuck

тока́рный патро́н — lathe chuck

трёхкулачко́вый патро́н — three-jaw chuck

ца́нговый патро́н — collet chuck

патро́н электрододержа́теля — electrode holder adapter

электрозажига́тельный патро́н — electric squib

электромагни́тный патро́н — magnetic chuck

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines, Textiles, Weapons and armour

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John George Bodmer (as he was known in England) showed signs of great inventive ability even as a child. Soon after completing his apprenticeship to a local millwright, he set up his own work-shop at Zussnacht. One of his first inventions, in 1805, was a shell which exploded on impact. Soon after this he went into partnership with Baron d'Eichthal to establish a cotton mill at St Blaise in the Black Forest. Bodmer designed the water-wheels and all the machinery. A few years later they established a factory for firearms and Bodmer designed special machine tools and developed a system of interchangeable manufacture comparable with American developments at that time. More inventions followed, including a detachable bayonet for breech-loading rifles and a rifled, breech-loading cannon for 12 lb (5.4 kg) shells.

Bodmer was appointed by the Grand Duke of Baden to the posts of Director General of the Government Iron Works and Inspector of Artillery. He left St Blaise in 1816 and entered completely into the service of the Grand Duke, but before taking up his duties he visited Britain for the first time and made an intensive five-month tour of textile mills, iron works, workshops and similar establishments.

In 1821 he returned to Switzerland and was engaged in setting up cotton mills and other engineering works. In 1824 he went back to England, where he obtained a patent for his improvements in cotton machinery and set up a mill near Bolton incorporating his ideas. His health failing, he was obliged to return to Switzerland in 1828, but he was soon busy with engineering works there and in France. In 1833 he went to England again, first to Bolton and four years later to Manchester in partnership with H.H.Birley. In the next ten years he patented many more inventions in the fields of textile machinery, steam engines and machine tools. These included a balanced steam engine, a mechanical stoker, steam engine valve gear, gear-cutting machines and a circular planer or vertical lathe, anticipating machines of this type later developed in America by E.P. Bullard. The metric system was used in his workshops and in gearing calculations he introduced the concept of diametral pitch, which then became known as "Manchester Pitch". The balanced engine was built in stationary form and in two locomotives, but although their running was remarkably smooth the additional complication prevented their wider use.

After the death of H.H.Birley in 1846, Bodmer removed to London until 1848, when he went to Austria. About 1860 he returned to his native town of Zurich. He remained actively engaged in all kinds of inventions up to the end of his life. He obtained fourteen British patents, each of which describes many inventions; two of these patents were extended beyond the normal duration of fourteen years. Two others were obtained on his behalf, one by his brother James in 1813 for his cannon and one relating to railways by Charles Fox in 1847. Many of his inventions had little direct influence but anticipated much later developments. His ideas were sound and some of his engines and machine tools were in use for over sixty years. He was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1835.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Charles Holtzapffel was the son of John Holtzapffel, a native of Germany who settled in London c.1787 and set up as a manufacturer of lathes and tools for amateur mechanics. Charles Holtzapffel received a good English education and training in his father's workshop, and subsequently became a partner and ultimately succeeded to the business. He was engaged in the construction of machinery for printing banknotes, of lathes for cutting rosettes and for ornamental and plain turning. Holtzapffel is chiefly remembered for his monumental work entitled Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, intended as a work of general reference and practical instruction on the lathe. Publication began in 1843 and only the first two volumes were published in his lifetime. A third volume was edited by his widow from his notes and published shortly after his death. The fourth and fifth volumes were completed by his son, John Jacob Holtzapffel, more than thirty years later. Holtzapffel was an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers and served on its Council: he was also a member of the Society of Arts and Chairman of its Committee on Mechanics.

SUBJECT AREA: Recording

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He graduated from the Dover Academy (Delaware) in 1882 and was apprenticed in a machine-repair firm in Philadelphia and studied in evening classes at the Spring Garden Institute. In 1888 he took employment in a small Philadelphia machine shop owned by Andrew Scull, specializing in repair and bookbinding machinery. After travels in the western part of the US, in 1891 he became a partner in Scull \& Johnson, Manufacturing Machinists, and established a further company, the New Jersey Wire Stitching Machine Company. He bought out Andrew Scull's interest in October 1894 (the last instalment being paid in 1897) and became an independent general machinist. In 1896 he had perfected a spring motor for the Berliner flat-disc gramophone, and he started experimenting with a more direct method of recording in a spiral groove: that of cutting in wax. Co-operation with Berliner eventually led to the incorporation of the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1901. The innumerable court cases stemming from the fact that so many patents for various elements in sound recording and reproduction were in very many hands were brought to an end in 1903 when Johnson was material in establishing cross-licencing agreements between Victor, Columbia Graphophone and Edison to create what is known as a patent pool. Early on, Johnson had a thorough experience in all matters concerning the development and manufacture of both gramophones and records. He made and patented many major contributions in all these fields, and his approach was very business-like in that the contribution to cost of each part or process was always a decisive factor in his designs. This attitude was material in his consulting work for the sister company, the Gramophone Company, in London before it set up its own factories in 1910. He had quickly learned the advantages of advertising and of providing customers with durable equipment and records. This motivation was so strong that Johnson set up a research programme for determining the cause of wear in records. It turned out to depend on groove profile, and from 1911 one particular profile was adhered to and processes for transforming the grooves of valuable earlier records were developed. Without precise measuring instruments, he used the durability as the determining factor. Johnson withdrew more and more to the role of manager, and the Victor Talking Machine Company gained such a position in the market that the US anti-trust legislation was used against it. However, a generation change in the Board of Directors and certain erroneous decisions as to product line started a decline, and in February 1926 Johnson withdrew on extended sick leave: these changes led to the eventual sale of Victor. However, Victor survived due to the advent of radio and the electrification of replay equipment and became a part of Radio Corporation of America. In retirement Johnson took up various activities in the arts and sciences and financially supported several projects; his private yacht was used in 1933 in work with the Smithsonian Institution on a deep-sea hydrographie and fauna-collecting expedition near Puerto Rico.

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace, Architecture and building, Horology, Weapons and armour

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Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer. His first sixteen years were spent with the lawyer's family in the rural surroundings of Vinci, which aroused in him a lifelong love of nature and an insatiable curiosity in it. He received little formal education but extended his knowledge through private reading. That gave him only a smattering of Latin, a deficiency that was to be a hindrance throughout his active life. At sixteen he was apprenticed in the studio of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence, where he received a training not only in art but in a wide variety of crafts and technical arts.

In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan, where he sought and obtained employment with Ludovico Sforza, later Duke of Milan, partly to sculpt a massive equestrian statue of Ludovico but the work never progressed beyond the full-scale model stage. He did, however, complete the painting which became known as the Virgin of the Rocks and in 1497 his greatest artistic achievement, The Last Supper, commissioned jointly by Ludovico and the friars of Santa Maria della Grazie and painted on the wall of the monastery's refectory. Leonardo was responsible for the court pageants and also devised a system of irrigation to supply water to the plains of Lombardy. In 1499 the French army entered Milan and deposed Leonardo's employer. Leonardo departed and, after a brief visit to Mantua, returned to Florence, where for a time he was employed as architect and engineer to Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna. Around 1504 he completed another celebrated work, the Mona Lisa.

In 1506 Leonardo began his second sojourn in Milan, this time in the service of King Louis XII of France, who appointed him "painter and engineer". In 1513 Leonardo left for Rome in the company of his pupil Francesco Melzi, but his time there was unproductive and he found himself out of touch with the younger artists active there, Michelangelo above all. In 1516 he accepted with relief an invitation from King François I of France to reside at the small château of St Cloux in the royal domain of Amboise. With the pension granted by François, Leonardo lived out his remaining years in tranquility at St Cloux.

Leonardo's career can hardly be regarded as a success or worthy of such a towering genius. For centuries he was known only for the handful of artistic works that he managed to complete and have survived more or less intact. His main activity remained hidden until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, during which the contents of his notebooks were gradually revealed. It became evident that Leonardo was one of the greatest scientific investigators and inventors in the history of civilization. Throughout his working life he extended a searching curiosity over an extraordinarily wide range of subjects. The notes show careful investigation of questions of mechanical and civil engineering, such as power transmission by means of pulleys and also a form of chain belting. The notebooks record many devices, such as machines for grinding and polishing lenses, a lathe operated by treadle-crank, a rolling mill with conical rollers and a spinning machine with pinion and yard divider. Leonardo made an exhaustive study of the flight of birds, with a view to designing a flying machine, which obsessed him for many years.

Leonardo recorded his observations and conclusions, together with many ingenious inventions, on thousands of pages of manuscript notes, sketches and drawings. There are occasional indications that he had in mind the publication of portions of the notes in a coherent form, but he never diverted his energy into putting them in order; instead, he went on making notes. As a result, Leonardo's impact on the development of science and technology was virtually nil. Even if his notebooks had been copied and circulated, there were daunting impediments to their understanding. Leonardo was left-handed and wrote in mirror-writing: that is, in reverse from right to left. He also used his own abbreviations and no punctuation.

At his death Leonardo bequeathed his entire output of notes to his friend and companion Francesco Melzi, who kept them safe until his own death in 1570. Melzi left the collection in turn to his son Orazio, whose lack of interest in the arts and sciences resulted in a sad period of dispersal which endangered their survival, but in 1636 the bulk of them, in thirteen volumes, were assembled and donated to the Ambrosian Library in Milan. These include a large volume of notes and drawings compiled from the various portions of the notebooks and is now known as the Codex Atlanticus. There they stayed, forgotten and ignored, until 1796, when Napoleon's marauding army overran Italy and art and literary works, including the thirteen volumes of Leonardo's notebooks, were pillaged and taken to Paris. After the war in 1815, the French government agreed to return them but only the Codex Atlanticus found its way back to Milan; the rest remained in Paris. The appendix to one notebook, dealing with the flight of birds, was later regarded as of sufficient importance to stand on its own. Four small collections reached Britain at various times during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; of these, the volume in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle is notable for its magnificent series of anatomical drawings. Other collections include the Codex Leicester and Codex Arundel in the British Museum in London, and the Madrid Codices in Spain.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Leonardo's true stature as scientist, engineer and inventor began to emerge, particularly with the publication of transcriptions and translations of his notebooks. The volumes in Paris appeared in 1881–97 and the Codex Atlanticus was published in Milan between 1894 and 1904.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Jesse Ramsden was the son of an innkeeper but received a good general education: after attending the free school at Halifax, he was sent at the age of 12 to his uncle for further study, particularly in mathematics. At the age of 16 he was apprenticed to a cloth-worker in Halifax and on completion of the apprenticeship in 1755 he moved to London to work as a clerk in a cloth warehouse. In 1758 he became an apprentice in the workshop of a London mathematical instrument-maker named Burton. He quickly gained the skill, particularly in engraving, and by 1762 he was able to set up on his own account. He married in 1765 or 1766 the youngest daughter of the optician John Dollond FRS (1706– 61) and received a share of Dollond's patent for making achromatic lenses.

Ramsden's experience and reputation increased rapidly and he was generally regarded as the leading instrument-maker of his time. He opened a shop in the Haymarket and transferred to Piccadilly in 1775. His staff increased to about sixty workers and apprentices, and by 1789 he had constructed nearly 1,000 sextants as well as theodolites, micrometers, balances, barometers, quadrants and other instruments.

One of Ramsden's most important contributions to precision measurement was his development of machines for obtaining accurate division of angular and linear scales. For this work he received a premium from the Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, who published his descriptions of the machines. For the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain, initiated by General William Roy FRS (1726–90) and continued by the Board of Ordnance, Ramsden supplied a 3 ft (91 cm) theodolite and steel measuring chains, and was also engaged to check the glass tubes used to measure the fundamental base line.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Weapons and armour

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After an elementary education, Elisha K.Root was apprenticed as a machinist and worked in that occupation at Ware and Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. In 1832 he went to Collinsville, Connecticut, to join the Collins Company, manufacturers of axes. He started as a lathe hand but soon became Foreman and, in 1845, Superintendent. While with the company, he devised and patented special-purpose machinery for forming axes which transformed the establishment from a primitive workshop to a modern factory.

In 1849 Root was offered positions by four different manufacturers and accepted the post of Superintendent of the armoury then being planned at Hartford, Connecticut, by Samuel Colt for the manufacture of his revolver pistol, which he had invented in 1835. Initial acceptance of the revolver was slow, but by the mid1840s Colt had received sufficient orders to justify the establishment of a new factory and Root was engaged to design and install the machinery. The principle of interchangeable manufacture was adopted, and Root devised special machines for boring, rifling, making cartridges, etc., and a system of jigs, fixtures, tools and gauges. One of these special machines was a drop hammer that he invented and patented in 1853 and which established the art of die-forging on a modern basis. He was also associated with F.A. Pratt in the design of the "Lincoln" milling machine in 1855.

When Colt died in 1862, Root became President of the company and continued in that capacity until his own death. It was said that he was one of the ablest and most highly paid mechanics from New England and that he was largely responsible for the success of both the Collins and the Colt companies.

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. действовать; легко поддающийся обработке

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They can farm any piece of unclaimed soil here.

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The pickle plant handles (or processes) 100 tons of pickles a season.

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The rods are machined on a turning lathe.

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Processes which work the metal by means of rolls...

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The life of timber depends upon the way in which it is felled, seasoned and worked.

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Cylindrical rolls are used for working flat stock.

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More than 15,000 tons of sea water must be processed (or treated) to obtain one ton of bromine.

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The machine will accept workpieces up to a maximum of 7 ft wide by 7 ft high.

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The electrolyte is next treated with zinc dust.

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The behaviour of the dashpot is conditioned by the viscosity of the oil used.

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The usefulness of this gypsum depends upon the fact that it hardens slowly.

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The interplanetary navigator's most difficult problems all derive from the following fact:...

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The plasma volume is determined by this equilibrium.

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The design of the anvils is dictated by the specific requirements that...

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The choice of the lathe is governed by the type and size of work to be performed.

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The increased pressure drop results from hole friction.

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These problems spring (or arise, or stem) from a number of different demands.

. обусловливаться; подчиняться

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The experimental methods of measuring dielectric constants depend on the frequency range under investigation.

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The divergence of is defined (or determined, or described) by the following expression:...

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The plasma volume is determined by this equilibrium.

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The number of oxygen atoms coordinating with a modifying cation is dictated by the size of that cation.

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The choice of the lathe is governed (or controlled) by the type and size of work to be performed.

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In the special theory of relativity an event is specified by the three space coordinates and the time.

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The initial state ahead of the piston is specified by .

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The machine looks something like an engine lathe turned up on end, with the faceplate at the bottom and with the work mounted vertically.

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To run (or work, or operate) a lathe.