-
41 Maria I, queen
(1734-1816)Daughter of King José I (r. 175077), she married her uncle Pedro III, her father's brother. Upon becoming queen in 1777, with the death of her father, Maria I dismissed the Marquis of Pombal, the king's prime minister. Known in Portuguese history by the nickname of "The Pious," Maria was extremely religious and, during her brief reign, attempted to reverse the dictator Pombal's statist, anticlerical policies, but to little avail. Her life and reign were transformed by family tragedies and by personal reactions to the news of the cataclysmic events in France. Maria's mental weakness was exacerbated progressively by the death of her consort Pedro (1786) and her eldest son João (1788) and gravely affected by news of the French Revolution and its excesses (1789-92). In 1792, she went insane and ceased to reign; her son João took her place and, in 1799, became prince regent. When, in 1807, the royal family fled with a British fleet to Brazil as France occupied Portugal, mad Maria, restrained, it was said, in an iron cage, was taken along. In 1816, while the royal court remained in Brazil, she died in Rio de Janeiro.See also João VI, king -
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Lisbon: Academia Portuguesa da Histôria, 1988.■ Pina Rui de. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso V, 3 vols. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1901-2.■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso II e d'El Rey D. Sancho II. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1906.■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso III. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1908.■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Diniz. Oporto: Liv. Civilização, 1945.■. Crónica d'El Rey D. João II. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1950.■. Crónica do muy excellente Dom Joham de gloriosa memoria. Lisbon, 1972-96.■ Zurara, Gomes Eanes de. The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, 2 vols. C. R. Beazley and Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Hakluyt Society, 1896-99.■. Crónica da tomada de Ceuta. Lisbon, 1915. -
43 Literature
The earliest known examples of literary writing in the Portuguese language is a collection of songbooks ( cancioneiros) that date from the 12th century, written by anonymous court troubadours, aristocrats, and clerics with poetic and musical talent. In the 13th and 14th centuries, ballads ( romanceiros) became popular at court. One of these written after the battle of Aljubarrota is considered to be the Portuguese equivalent of the English Arthurian legend. Literary prose in Portuguese began in the 14th century, with the compilation of chronicles ( chrónicos) written by Fernão Lopes de Castenhada who was commissioned by King Duarte (1430-38) to write a history of the House of Aviz.During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese chroniclers turned their attention to the discoveries and the Portuguese overseas empire. The Portuguese discoveries in India and Asia were chronicled by João de Barros, whose writing appeared posthumously under the pen name of Diogo Do Couto; Fernão Lopes de Castenhade wrote a 10-volume chronicle of the Portuguese in India. The most famous chronicle from this period was the Peregrinação (Pilgrimage), a largely true adventure story and history of Portugal that was as popular among 17th-century readers in Iberia as was Miguel de Cer-vantes's Don Quixote. Portugal's most celebrated work of national literature, The Lusiads ( Os Lusíadas), written by Luís de Camões chronicled Vasco da Gama's voyage to India (1497-99) within the context of the history of Portugal.During the period when Portugal was under Spanish domination (1580-1640), the preferred language of literary expression was Castilian Spanish. The greatest writer of this period was Francisco Manuel de Melo, who wrote in Castilian and Portuguese. His most famous work is an eyewitness account of the 1640 Catalan revolt against Castile, Historia de los Movimientos y Separación de Cata-luna (1645), which allowed the Portuguese monarchy to regain its independence that same year.Little of note was written during the 17th century with the exception of Letters of a Portuguese Nun, an enormously popular work in the French language thought to have been written by Sister Mariana Alcoforado to a French officer Noel Bouton, Marquise de Chamilly.Modern Portuguese writing began in the early 19th century with the appearance of the prose-fiction of João Baptista de Almeida Garrett and the historian-novelist Alexandre Herculano. The last half of the 19th century was dominated by the Generation of 1870, which believed that Portugal was, due to the monarchy and the Catholic Church, a European backwater. Writers such as José Maria Eça de Queirós dissected the social decadence of their day and called for reform and national renewal. The most famous Portuguese poet of the 20th century is, without doubt, Fernando Pessoa, who wrote poetry and essays in English and Portuguese under various names. António Ferro (1895-1956) published best-selling accounts of the right-wing dictatorships in Italy and Spain that endeared him to Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar, who made him the Estado Novo's secretary of national propaganda.The various responses of the Portuguese people to the colonial African wars (1961-75) were chronicled by António Lobo Antunes. In 1998, the noted Portuguese novelist, poet, essayist, and travel writer, José Saramago was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the first writer in the Portuguese language of whatever nationality to be so honored. His most famous novels translated into English include: Baltazar and Blimunda (1987), The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis (1991), and The History of the Siege of Lisbon (1996). -
44 Saldanha, Duke of
(1790-1876)Born João Carlos de Saldanha Oliveira Daun, and later called duke, marshal, count, and marquis of Saldanha, he pursued a military career and personified military intervention in 19th-century politics. Saldanha fought against the French in the Peninsular War, as well as in conflicts in Uruguay and Brazil, and he backed the constitutional monarchist cause of King Pedro IV. Perhaps the most famous of career officers during the century, in his younger years he was often in exile. Critics quipped that his true name was "Dom João VII" for his imperious manner. As minister and prime minister in various liberal governments after 1851, his name later became used as a generic term for an impetuously planned military coup, a "Saldanhada," meaning a military golpe almost whimsical in spirit, carried out by a wild, headstrong general.A soldier from the tender age of 14, Saldanha was a much-discussed figure during various generations of soldiers and politicians. The writer Oliveira Martins later described the man as "a liberal and Portuguese Cid," after El Cid, the Castilian crusading warrior who fought Muslims in medieval Spain. For the constitutional liberal cause of Regent Dom Pedro, Saldanha's personal valor and military prowess were essential in the civil wars, and his prestige in the military was important in the era of the Regeneration of 1851-70; however, this officer lacked political ideas and was out of his element in governance. Queen Maria II, however, in part owed her throne to the force of this military personality who had become a general at age 27. In later life, Saldanha, loaded with honors and freighted with medals, served as Portugal's ambassador in Paris and London, in which city he died at his last post. -
45 Estoril
Composed of the towns of São Pedro, São João, Monte Estoril, and Estoril, and located about 32 kilometers (15 miles) west of Lisbon along the coast, Estoril forms the heart of a tourist region. Once described in tourist literature as the Sun Coast ( Costa do Sol), this coast—in order not to be confused with a region with a similar name in neighboring Spain (Costa del Sol)—has been renamed the "Lisbon Coast." Its origins go back to several developments in the late 19th century that encouraged the building of a resort area that would take advantage of the coast's fine climate and beaches from Carcav-elos to Cascais. Sporty King Carlos I (r. 1889-1908) and his court liked summering in Cascais (apparently the first tennis in Portugal was played here), then only a simple fishing village. There are medicinal spring waters in Estoril, and the inauguration (1889) of a new train line from Lisbon to Cascais provided a convenient way of bringing in visitors before the age of automobiles and superhighways.As a high-class resort town, Estoril was developed beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, due in part to the efforts of the entrepreneur Fausto de Figueiredo, whose memorial statue graces the now famous Casino Gardens. Soon Estoril possessed a gambling casino, restaurants, and several fine hotels.Estoril's beginnings as a small but popular international resort and watering spot were slow and difficult, however, and what Estoril became was determined in part by international economy and politics. The resort's backers and builders modeled Estoril to a degree on Nice, a much larger, older, and better-known resort in the French Riviera. The name "Estoril," in fact, which was not found on Portuguese maps before the 20th century, was a Portuguese corruption of the French word for a mountain range near Nice. Estoril hotel designs, such as that of reputedly the most luxurious hotel outside Lisbon, the Hotel Palácio-Estoril, looked to earlier hotel designs on the French Riviera.It was remarkable, too, that Estoril's debut as a resort area with full services (hotels, casino, beach, spa) and sports (golf, tennis, swimming) happened to coincide with the depth of the world Depression (1929-34) that seemed to threaten its future. Less expensive, with a more reliably mild year-round climate and closer to Great Britain and North America than the older French Riviera, the "Sun Coast" that featured Estoril had many attractions. The resort's initial prosperity was guaranteed when large numbers of middle-class and wealthy Spaniards migrated to the area after 1931, during the turbulent Spanish Republic and subsequent bloody Civil War (1936-39). World War II (when Portugal was neutral) and the early stages of the Cold War only enhanced the Sun Coast's resort reputation. After 1939, numbers of displaced and dethroned royalty from Europe came to Portugal to live in a sunny, largely tax-free climate. In the early 1950s, Estoril's casino became known to millions of readers and armchair travelers when it was featured in one of the early James Bond books by Ian Fleming, Casino Royale (1953). In the 1980s and 1990s, the Casino was expanded and rehabilitated, while the Hotel Palacio Estoril was given a face-lift along with a new railroad station and the addition of more elegant restaurants and shops. In 2003, in the Estoril Post Office building, a Museum of Exiles and Refugees of World War II was opened.
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