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81 aumentare
1. v/t increaseprezzi increase, raise, put up2. v/i increasedi prezzi increase, rise, go up* * *aumentare v.tr. to increase; to raise; (fam.) to up; ( ampliare) to enlarge; (form.) to augment; aumentare uno stipendio, to raise a salary; aumentò la velocità, he increased his speed; aumentare i prezzi, to raise (o increase o amer. hike) prices; aumentare la produzione, to increase (o boost) production; aumentare progressivamente i prezzi, to scale up prices; aumentare il valore della merce, to raise the value of the goods; aumentare il tasso di sconto, to raise the discount rate; aumentare le imposte, to increase taxes; aumentare i dazi, to raise duties // ( assicurazioni) aumentare il premio, to load the insurance premium◆ v. intr. to increase, to grow*, to enlarge; ( salire) to rise*; ( accumularsi) to pile up: la febbre gli aumentò, his temperature rose; il prezzo della carne aumenta, the price of meat is rising; simili casi andavano aumentando, such cases were on the increase (o were increasing in number); le spese aumentano, costs are going up; in questi ultimi anni la popolazione è aumentata, in the last few years the population has increased; aumentare di valore, to rise in value; aumentare di peso, to put on weight; i debiti aumentano, debts are piling up.* * *[aumen'tare]1. vt(prezzo) to increase, put up, (stipendi) to increase, raise2. vi(aus essere) (gen) to increase, (prezzi) to go up, rise, increase, (livello) to rise, (qualità) to improveaumentare di peso — (persona) to put on weight
la produzione è aumentata del 50% — production has increased by 50%
la disoccupazione è aumentata del 10% — unemployment's gone up by 10%
* * *[aumen'tare] 1.verbo transitivo1) (accrescere) to increase, to raise [numero, salario, volume]; to extend [potere, influenza, durata]; to enlarge [ capacità]; to hike [tassi, prezzi]; to boost [ produzione]2) (nel lavoro a maglia) to increase [ maglie]2.1) (salire, crescere) [tasse, affitto, vendite] to increase; [temperatura, pressione] to rise*; [ popolazione] to grow*; [numero, prezzi] to increase, to rise*, to go* up, to climb; [margine, scarto] to open upaumentare di peso, numero — to increase in weight, number
2) (diventare più costoso) [merce, servizio] to go* up3) (intensificarsi) [ammirazione, amore] to deepen; [rischio, forza] to increase; [tensione, paura, rumore, fame] to grow*; [corrente, vento] to strengthen* * *aumentare/aumen'tare/ [1]1 (accrescere) to increase, to raise [numero, salario, volume]; to extend [potere, influenza, durata]; to enlarge [ capacità]; to hike [tassi, prezzi]; to boost [ produzione]2 (nel lavoro a maglia) to increase [ maglie](aus. essere)1 (salire, crescere) [tasse, affitto, vendite] to increase; [temperatura, pressione] to rise*; [ popolazione] to grow*; [numero, prezzi] to increase, to rise*, to go* up, to climb; [margine, scarto] to open up; aumentare di peso, numero to increase in weight, number2 (diventare più costoso) [merce, servizio] to go* up3 (intensificarsi) [ammirazione, amore] to deepen; [rischio, forza] to increase; [tensione, paura, rumore, fame] to grow*; [corrente, vento] to strengthen. -
82 Gesetz der steigenden Opportunitätskosten
Business german-english dictionary > Gesetz der steigenden Opportunitätskosten
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83 общая стоимость
1. total cost2. overall value3. total valueэмиссионная стоимость; стоимость при эмиссии — issued value
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84 остаточная стоимость
1. depreciable costснижение себестоимости; снижение стоимости — cost reduction
фактурная стоимость; стоимость по накладной — invoice cost
стоимость издания, затраты на издание — cost of publishing
2. depreciable value3. salvage value4. written-off valueэмиссионная стоимость; стоимость при эмиссии — issued value
5. residual valueстоимость товаров, купленных по контракту — contract value
реализация стоимости; получение отдачи — value realization
Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > остаточная стоимость
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85 относительная стоимость
Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > относительная стоимость
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86 фактурная стоимость
Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > фактурная стоимость
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87 Economy
Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging. -
88 oplopend
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89 centralized purchasing
Opsthe control by a central department of all the purchasing undertaken within an organization. In a large organization centralized purchasing is often located within the headquarters. Centralization has the advantages of reducing duplication of effort, pooling volume purchases for discounts, enabling more effective inventory control, consolidating transport loads to achieve lower costs, increasing skills development in purchasing personnel, and enhancing relationships with suppliers. -
90 economies of scale
Finreductions in unit average costs caused by increasing the scale of production -
91 industrial market research
Mktgmarket research into the marketing of services and goods to industry, businesses, and other institutions.Industrial market research is used as an aid to decision making and concerns the manufacture, selling, and distribution of products with the goal of reducing costs and increasing profits. It considers factors such as the available labor force, location of the firm, export market potential, and use of resources.The ultimate business dictionary > industrial market research
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92 rightsizing
Gen Mgtcorporate restructuring, or rationalization, with the goal of reducing costs, and improving efficiency and effectiveness. Rightsizing is often used as a euphemism for downsizing, or delayering, with the suggestion that it is not as farreaching. Rightsizing can also be used to describe increasing the size of an organization, perhaps as an attempt to correct a previous downsizing, or delayering, exercise. -
93 strategic alliance
Gen Mgtan agreement between two or more organizations to cooperate in a specific business activity, so that each benefits from the strengths of the other, and gains competitive advantage. The formation of strategic alliances has been seen as a response to globalization and increasing uncertainty and complexity in the business environment. Strategic alliances involve the sharing of knowledge and expertise between partners as well as the reduction of risk and costs in areas such as relationships with suppliers and the development of new products and technologies. A strategic alliance is sometimes equated with a joint venture, but an alliance may involve competitors, and generally has a shorter life span. Strategic partnering is a closely related concept. -
94 Rillieux, Norbert
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 1800 New Orleans, Louisiana, USAd. 1894 France[br]African-American inventor of a sugar-evaporation process.[br]A free black, he was the son of Vincent Rillieux, a white engineer, and Constance Vivant, a quadroon. The family was prosperous enough to send him to France to be educated, at the Ecole Centrale in Paris. There he studied engineering and later taught mechanical engineering, developing a special interest in thermodynamics and steampower. In 1830 he devised a vacuum evaporation system with industrial possibilities, but he was unable to interest any French firms in the device. He therefore returned to New Orleans and ob-tained his first patent in 1843. Two years later he was able to have the evaporation system installed on a plantation to refine sugar. It soon demonstrated its worth, for planters were able to recoup the cost of the plant within a year through raised production and reduced operating costs. It came to be the generally accepted method for processing sugar-cane juice, and the price of refined sugar fell so that white sugar ceased to be a luxury food for the rich.Rillieux's patents protected him from repeated efforts to counterfeit the process, which thus earned him considerable wealth. However, because of increasing hostility and discriminatory laws against blacks in New Orleans, he did not long enjoy it and he returned to France, taking up the study of egyptology.[br]Further ReadingP.P.James, 1989, The Real McCoy: AfricanAmerican Invention and Innovation 1619– 1930, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 41–3.LRD -
95 Spooner, Charles Easton
[br]b. 1818 Maentwrog, Merioneth (now Gwynedd), Walesd. 18 November 1889 Portmadoc (now Porthmadog), Wales[br]English engineer, pioneer of narrow-gauge steam railways.[br]At the age of 16 Charles Spooner helped his father, James, to build the Festiniog Railway, a horse-and-gravity tramroad; they maintained an even gradient and kept costs down by following a sinuous course along Welsh mountainsides and using a very narrow gauge. This was probably originally 2 ft 1 in. (63.5 cm) from rail centre to rail centre; with the introduction of heavier, and therefore wider, rails the gauge between them was reduced and was eventually standardized at 1 ft 11 1/2 in (60 cm). After James Spooner's death in 1856 Charles Spooner became Manager and Engineer of the Festiniog Railway and sought to introduce steam locomotives. Widening the gauge was impracticable, but there was no precedent for operating a public railway of such narrow gauge by steam. Much of the design work for locomotives for the Festiniog Railway was the responsibility of C.M.Holland, and many possible types were considered: eventually, in 1863, two very small 0–4–0 tank locomotives, with tenders for coal, were built by George England.These locomotives were successful, after initial problems had been overcome, and a passenger train service was introduced in 1865 with equal success. The potential for economical operation offered by such a railway attracted widespread attention, the more so because it had been effectively illegal to build new passenger railways in Britain to other than standard gauge since the Gauge of Railways Act of 1846.Spooner progressively improved the track, alignment, signalling and rolling stock of the Festiniog Railway and developed it from a tramroad to a miniaturized main line. Increasing traffic led to the introduction in 1869 of the 0–4–4–0 double-Fairlie locomotive Little Wonder, built to the patent of Robert Fairlie. This proved more powerful than two 0–4–0s and impressive demonstrations were given to engineers from many parts of the world, leading to the widespread adoption of narrow-gauge railways. Spooner himself favoured a gauge of 2 ft 6 in. (76 cm) or 2 ft 9 in. (84 cm). Comparison of the economy of narrow gauges with the inconvenience of a break of gauge at junctions with wider gauges did, however, become a continuing controversy, which limited the adoption of narrow gauges in Britain.Bogie coaches had long been used in North America but were introduced to Britain by Spooner in 1872, when he had two such coaches built for the Festiniog Railway. Both of these and one of its original locomotives, though much rebuilt, remain in service.Spooner, despite some serious illnesses, remained Manager of the Festiniog Railway until his death.[br]Bibliography1869, jointly with G.A.Huddart, British patent no. 1,487 (improved fishplates). 1869, British patent no. 2,896 (rail-bending machinery).1871, Narrow Gauge Railways, E. \& F.N.Spon (includes his description of the Festiniog Railway, reports of locomotive trials and his proposals for narrow-gauge railways).Further ReadingJ.I.C.Boyd, 1975, The Festiniog Railway, Blandford: Oakwood Press; C.E.Lee, 1945, Narrow-Gauge Railways in North Wales, The Railway Publishing Co. (both give good descriptions of Spooner and the Festiniog Railway).C.Hamilton Ellis, 1965, Railway Carriages in the British Isles, London: George Allen \& Unwin, pp. 181–3. Pihl, Carl Abraham.PJGRBiographical history of technology > Spooner, Charles Easton
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