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21 the relations between the countries are at a low ebb
Англо-русский дипломатический словарь > the relations between the countries are at a low ebb
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22 the relations between the countries are at a low ebb
English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > the relations between the countries are at a low ebb
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23 the relations with these countries are at an all-time low
Общая лексика: отношения с этими странами ухудшились как никогдаУниверсальный англо-русский словарь > the relations with these countries are at an all-time low
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24 at a low ebb
на спадеAfter the failure of the disarmament talks, relations between the two countries were at a low ebb for months.
Public interest in new car models was at a low ebb because of the high price of petrol.
Англо-русский словарь идиом и фразовых глаголов > at a low ebb
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25 developing countries
межд. эк. развивающиеся страны (условная группа стран, выделенная международным сообществом в начале 1960-х гг.; к этой группе относят страны, характеризующиеся низким уровнем валового внутреннего дохода на душу населения, низким уровнем развития человеческого капитала, низким уровнем жизни и слабо диверсифицированной экономикой; критерии отнесения стран к этой группе, и соответственно состав группы, по классификациям разных международных организаций несколько отличается; в составе развивающихся стран обычно выделяют группу наименее развитых стран, страны с низким уровнем дохода, не входящие в состав группы наименее развитых стран, страны с уровнем дохода ниже среднего уровня; к этой группе относится значительная часть стран Африки, Азии и Южной Америки)See:advanced developing countries, DAC List of Aid Recipients, Group of Twenty-Four, Group of Seventy Seven, Japan International Cooperation Agency, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, advanced economies, newly industrializing country, developed countries, less developed countries, least developed countries, underdeveloped countries, non-industrialized country, countries in transition, concessional loan, lower middle-income countries, low-income countries, Debt Management and Financial Analysis System, official development assistance, dependency theory, special and differential treatment, development economics, New International Economic Order, Third World, Fourth World, digital divide, Afghanistan, Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Federated States of Micronesia, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Syria, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uganda, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe, American Samoa, Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cayman Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, Cook Islands, Cuba, Eritrea, Falkland Islands, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gibraltar, Greenland, Guadeloupe, Guam, Guernsey, Jersey, North Korea, Macau, Isle of Man, Martinique, Mayotte, Montserrat, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Pitcairn Islands, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint Helena, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Tokelau, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Virgin Islands of the United States, Wallis and Futuna, Western Sahara, West Bank and Gaza Strip* * *в этих странах обрабатывающая промышленность дает 10-20 % ВНП; характеризуются быстрым ростом среднего класса Египет, Филиппины, Индия, Бразилия -
26 Democratic Republic of the Congo
сокр. DRC общ. Демократическая республика Конго (республика; столица — Киншаса; государственный язык французский; национальная валюта — конголезский франк, до 1998 г. — Заир)Syn:See:Congolese franc, zaire, Congo, Southern African Development Community, Economic Community of Central African States, Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, African Union, developing countries, less developed countries, least developed countries, low-income countries, severely indebted, Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, IDA country, Sub-Saharan AfricaАнгло-русский экономический словарь > Democratic Republic of the Congo
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27 high-income countries
межд. эк. страны с высоким уровнем дохода (по классификации Всемирного банка: страны с валовым национальным доходом в год на душу населения выше $10,726; эта группа стран, включает как экономически развитые страны, так и развивающиеся страны с высоким уровнем подушевого дохода, основанного на доходах от экспорта нефти; на основе данных о валовом национальном доходе на душу населения в 2005 г. к этой группе относились 56 страны и территории: Андорра, Антигуа и Барбуда, Аруба, Австралия, Австрия, Багамские Острова, Бахрейн, Бельгия, Бермудские Острова, Бруней, Канада, Каймановы Острова, Нормандские Острова, Кипр, Дания, Фарерские Острова, Финляндия, Франция, Полинезия, Германия, Греция, Гренландия, Гуам, Гонконг, Исландия, Ирландия, Остров Мэн, Израиль, Италия, Япония, Южная Корея, Кувейт, Лихтенштейн, Люксембург, Макао, Мальта, Монако, Нидерланды, Нидерландские Антильские Острова, Новая Каледония, Новая Зеландия, Норвегия, Португалия, Пуэрто-Рико, Катар, Сан-Марино, Саудовская Аравия, Сингапур, Словения, Испания, Швеция, Швейцария, Объединенные Арабские Эмираты, Великобритания, США, Американские Виргинские Острова)See:GNI per capita, low-income countries, lower middle-income countries, upper middle-income countries, World Bank, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Belgium, Bermuda, Brunei, Canada, Cayman Islands, Channel Islands, Cyprus, Denmark, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, French Polynesia, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Guam, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Isle of Man, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macau, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Qatar, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Virgin Islands of the United States -
28 upper middle-income countries
межд. эк. страны с доходами выше среднего уровня (по классификации Всемирного банка: страны с валовым национальным доходом в год на душу населения от $3,466 до $10,725 долларов США; на основе данных о валовом национальном доходе на душу населения в 2005 г. к этой группе относились 40 стран: Восточное Самоа, Аргентина, Барбадос, Белиз, Ботсвана, Чили, Коста-Рика, Хорватия, Чехия, Доминика, Экваториальная Гвинея, Эстония, Габон, Гренада, Венгрия, Латвия, Ливан, Ливия, Литва, Малайзия, Маврикий, Майотта, Мексика, Северные Марианские Острова, Оман, Палау, Панама, Польша, Россия, Румыния, Сейшельские Острова, Словакия, Южно-Африканская республика, Сент-Китс и Невис, Сент-Люсия, Сент-Винсент и Гренадины, Тринидад и Тобаго, Турция, Уругвай, Венесуэла)See:GNI per capita, low-income countries, lower middle-income countries, high-income countries, American Samoa, Argentina, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Chile, Costa Rica, Croatia, Czechia, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Gabon, Grenada, Hungary, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mexico, Northern Mariana Islands, Oman, Palau, Panama, Poland, Romania, Russia, Seychelles, Slovakia, South Africa, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Uruguay, VenezuelaАнгло-русский экономический словарь > upper middle-income countries
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29 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
сокр. HIPCs, HIPC межд. эк. бедные страны, сильно обремененные долгом*; бедные страны с высоким уровнем задолженности [со значительным долгом, с высоким долгом, с крупным долгом\]* (группа, состоящая из стран, которые, согласно определению Всемирного банка и Международного валютного фонда, характеризуются как чрезмерно высокой внешней задолженностью, так и крайне низким уровнем доходов; группа была выделена в 1996 г. с целью разработки мероприятий по урегулированию и снижению внешней задолженности этих стран, что должно позволить правительствам этих стран направить освободившиеся средства на борьбу с бедностью; группа включает преимущественно страны Африки и Латинской Америки; по состоянию на 2007 г. к группе относились 40 стран: Бенин, Боливия, Буркина-Фасо, Бурунди, Камерун, Центрально-Африканская республика, Чад, Коморские Острова, республика Конго, Кот-д'Ивуар, Демократическая Республика Конго, Эритрея, Эфиопия, Гана, Гамбия, Гвинея, Гвинея-Бисау, Гайана, Гаити, Гондурас, Кыргызстан, Либерия, Мадагаскар, Малави, Мали, Мавритания, Мозамбик, Непал, Никарагуа, Нигер, Руанда, Сан-Томе и Принсипи, Сенегал, Сьерра-Леоне, Сомали, Судан, Того, Уганда, Танзания, Замбия)See:Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Monetary Fund, severely indebted country, low-income countries, Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Kyrgyzstan, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, Tanzania, ZambiaАнгло-русский экономический словарь > Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
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30 Open-ended International Meeting of Experts on the Special Needs and Requirements of Developing Countries with Low Forest Cover and Unique Types of Forests
Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Open-ended International Meeting of Experts on the Special Needs and Requirements of Developing Countries with Low Forest Cover and Unique Types of Forests
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31 Wellington, Duke of
(Arthur Wellesley)(1769-1852)The British general who helped liberate Portugal from French occupation under Napoleon's armies (1808-11), turned back three French invasions, and enabled Portugal to reassert its independence as a nation-state. Born in Ireland, Arthur Wellesley became the most talented and honored soldier of several generations during the first half of the 19th century. He attended Great Britain's famed public school, Eton, and entered the British army and first served in the Low Countries in the 1790s and then in campaigns in British India and the 1807 Copenhagen expedition.When the British government decided to send an expedition to oppose Napoleon's occupation of Portugal, Wellesley was appointed commander of the force, which landed at the mouth of the Mondego River on 1 August 1808. For the next three years, the famous lieutenant general led Anglo-Portuguese forces against the three French invasions and, by 1811, had defeated the French. Wellington's forces proceeded across the frontier into Spain where, for the next two years, the allied forces fought victoriously against the French. Wellington received a number of honors, titles, and decorations from Portugal for his heroic efforts; after the final expulsion of French forces under Masséna, in 1810, Portugal's government granted Wellington—among other honors—the title of viscount of Vimieiro and the medal the Grand Cross of the Tower and the Sword (Torre e Espada). -
32 Arnold, John
SUBJECT AREA: Horology[br]b. 1735/6 Bodmin (?), Cornwall, Englandd. 25 August 1799 Eltham, London, England[br]English clock, watch, and chronometer maker who invented the isochronous helical balance spring and an improved form of detached detent escapement.[br]John Arnold was apprenticed to his father, a watchmaker, and then worked as an itinerant journeyman in the Low Countries and, later, in England. He settled in London in 1762 and rapidly established his reputation at Court by presenting George III with a miniature repeating watch mounted in a ring. He later abandoned the security of the Court for a more precarious living developing his chronometers, with some financial assistance from the Board of Longitude. Symbolically, in 1771 he moved from the vicinity of the Court at St James's to John Adam Street, which was close to the premises of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures \& Commerce.By the time Arnold became interested in chronometry, Harrison had already demonstrated that longitude could be determined by means of a timekeeper, and the need was for a simpler instrument that could be sold at an affordable price for universal use at sea. Le Roy had shown that it was possible to dispense with a remontoire by using a detached escapement with an isochronous balance; Arnold was obviously thinking along the same lines, although he may not have been aware of Le Roy's work. By 1772 Arnold had developed his detached escapement, a pivoted detent which was quite different from that used on the European continent, and three years later he took out a patent for a compensation balance and a helical balance spring (Arnold used the spring in torsion and not in tension as Harrison had done). His compensation balance was similar in principle to that described by Le Roy and used riveted bimetallic strips to alter the radius of gyration of the balance by moving small weights radially. Although the helical balance spring was not completely isochronous it was a great improvement on the spiral spring, and in a later patent (1782) he showed how it could be made more truly isochronous by shaping the ends. In this form it was used universally in marine chronometers.Although Arnold's chronometers performed well, their long-term stability was less satisfactory because of the deterioration of the oil on the pivot of the detent. In his patent of 1782 he eliminated this defect by replacing the pivot with a spring, producing the spring detent escapement. This was also done independendy at about the same time by Berthoud and Earnshaw, although Earnshaw claimed vehemently that Arnold had plagiarized his work. Ironically it was Earnshaw's design that was finally adopted, although he had merely replaced Arnold's pivoted detent with a spring, while Arnold had completely redesigned the escapement. Earnshaw also improved the compensation balance by fusing the steel to the brass to form the bimetallic element, and it was in this form that it began to be used universally for chronometers and high-grade watches.As a result of the efforts of Arnold and Earnshaw, the marine chronometer emerged in what was essentially its final form by the end of the eighteenth century. The standardization of the design in England enabled it to be produced economically; whereas Larcum Kendall was paid £500 to copy Harrison's fourth timekeeper, Arnold was able to sell his chronometers for less than one-fifth of that amount. This combination of price and quality led to Britain's domination of the chronometer market during the nineteenth century.[br]Bibliography30 December 1775, "Timekeepers", British patent no. 1,113.2 May 1782, "A new escapement, and also a balance to compensate the effects arising from heat and cold in pocket chronometers, and for incurving the ends of the helical spring…", British patent no. 1,382.Further ReadingR.T.Gould, 1923, The Marine Chronometer: Its History and Development, London; reprinted 1960, Holland Press (provides an overview).V.Mercer, 1972, John Arnold \& Son Chronometer Makers 1726–1843, London.See also: Phillips, EdouardDV -
33 Boulle, André-Charles
SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors[br]b. 11 November 1642 Paris, Franced. 29 February 1732 Paris, France[br]French cabinet-maker noted for his elaborate designs and high-quality technique in marquetry using brass and tortoiseshell.[br]As with the Renaissance artists and architects of fifteenth-and sixteenth-century Italy, Boulle worked as a young man in varied media, as a painter, engraver and metalworker an in mosaic techniques. It was in the 1660s that he turned more specifically to furniture and in the following decade, under the patronage of Louis XIV, that he became a leading ébéniste or cabinet-maker, In 1672 the King's Controller-General, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, recommended Boulle as an outstanding cabinet-maker and he was appointed ébéniste du roi. From then he spent the rest of his life working in the royal palaces, notably the Louvre and Versailles, and also carried out commissions for the French aristocracy and from abroad, particularly Spain and Germany.Before the advent of Boulle, the quality furniture made for the French court and aristocracy had come from foreign craftsmen, particularly Domenico Cucci of Italy and Pierre Colle of the Low Countries. Boulle made his name as their equal in his development of new forms of furniture such as his bureaux and commodes, the immense variety of his designs and their architectural quality, the beauty of his sculptural, gilded mounts, and the development of his elaborate marquetry. He was a leading exponent of the contemporary styles, which meant the elaborately rich baroque forms in the time of Louis XIV and the more delicate rococo elegance in that of Louis XV. The technique to which Boulle gave his name (sometimes referred to in its German spelling of Bühl) incorporated a rich variety of veneering materials into his designs: in particular, he used tortoiseshell and brass with ebony. Even greater richness was created with the introduction of an engraved design upon the brass surfaces. Further delicate elaboration derived from the use of paired panels of decoration to be used in reverse form in one piece, or two matching pieces, of furniture. In one panel, designated as première partie, the marquetry took the form of brass upon tortoiseshell, while in the other (contre-partie) the tortoiseshell was set into the brass background.[br]Further ReadingJ.Fleming and H.Honour, 1977, The Penguin Dictionary of Decorative Arts: Allen Lane, pp. 107–9.1982, The History of Furniture: Orbis (contains many references to Boulle).DY -
34 Caxton, William
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. c.1422 Kent, Englandd. 1491 Westminster, England[br]English printer who produced the first book to be printed in English.[br]According to his own account, Caxton was born in Kent and received a schooling before entering the Mercers' Company, one of the most influential of the London guilds and engaged in the wholesale export trade in woollen goods and other wares, principally with the Low Countries. Around 1445, Caxton moved to Bruges, where he engaged in trade with such success that in 1462 he was appointed Governor of the English Nation in Bruges. He was entrusted with diplomatic missions, and his dealings with the court of Burgundy brought him into contact with the Duchess, Margaret of York, sister of the English King Edward IV. Caxton embarked on the production of fine manuscripts, making his own translations from the French for the Duchess and other noble patrons with a taste for this kind of literature. This trend became more marked after 1470–1 when Caxton lost his post in Bruges, probably due to the temporary overthrow of King Edward. Perhaps to satisfy an increasing demand for his texts, Caxton travelled to Cologne in 1471 to learn the art of printing. He set up a printing business in Bruges, in partnership with the copyist and bookseller Colard Mansion. There, late in 1474 or early the following year, Caxton produced the first book to be printed in English, and the first by an English printer, The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy, which he had translated from the French.In 1476 Caxton returned to England and set up his printing and publishing business "at the sign of the Red Pale" within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. This was more conveniently placed than the City of London for the likely customers among the court and Members of Parliament for the courtly romances and devotional works he aimed to produce. Other printers followed but survived only a few years, whereas Caxton remained successful for fifteen years and then bequeathed a flourishing concern to his assistant Wynkyn de Worde. During that time, 107 printed works, including seventy-four books, issued from Caxton's press. Of these, some twenty were his own translations. As printer and publisher, he did much to promote English literature, above all by producing the first editions of the literary masterpieces of the Middle Ages, such as the works of Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate and Malory's Morte d'Arthur. Among the various dialects of spoken English in use at the time, Caxton adopted the language of London and the court and so did much to fix a permanent standard for written English.[br]Further ReadingW.Blades, 1877, The Biography and Typography of William Caxton, England's First Printer, London; reprinted 1971 (the classic life of Caxton, superseded in detail by modern scholarship but still indispensable).G.D.Painter, 1976, William Caxton: A Quincentenary Biography of England's FirstPrinter, London: Chatto \& Windus (the most thorough recent biography, describing every known Caxton document and edition, with corrected and new interpretations based on the latest scholarship).N.F.Blake, 1969, Caxton and His World, London (a reliable account, set against the background of English late-medieval life).See also: Gutenberg, Johann Gensfleisch zumLRD -
35 Steers, Thomas
[br]b. c. 1672 Kent, Englandd. buried November 1750 Liverpool, England[br]English dock and canal engineer.[br]An Army officer serving at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 and later in the Low Countries, Steers thus gained experience in water control and development, canals and drainage. After his return to England he was associated with George Sorocold in the construction of Howland Great Dock, Rotherhithe, London, opened in 1699 and the first wet dock built in England. He was again associated with Sorocold in planning the first of Liverpool's wet docks and subsequently was responsible for its construction. On its completion, he became Dockmaster in 1717.In 1712 he surveyed the River Douglas for navigation, and received authorization to make it navigable from the Ribble estuary to Wigan in 1720. Although work was started by Steers, the undertaking was hit by the collapse of the South Sea Bubble and Steers was no longer associated with it when it was restarted in 1738. In 1721 he proposed making the Mersey and Irwell navigable.In 1736 he surveyed and engineered the first summit-level canal in the British Isles, between Portadown and Newry in Ulster, thus providing through-water communication between Lough Neagh and the Irish Sea. The canal was completed in 1741. He also carried out a survey of the river Boyne. Also in 1736, he surveyed the Worsley Brook in South Lancashire to provide navigation from Worsley to the Mersey. This was done on behalf of Scroop, 1st Duke of Bridgewater; an Act was obtained in 1737, but no work was started on the scheme at that time. It was left to Francis Egerton, the 3rd Duke, to initiate the Bridgewater Canal to provide water transport for coal from the Worsley pits direct to Manchester. In 1739 Steers was elected Mayor of Liverpool. The following year, jointly with John Eyes of Liverpool, he surveyed a possible navigation along the Calder from its junction with the Aire \& Calder at Wakefield to the Hebble and so through to Halifax, but, owing to opposition at the time, the construction of the Calder \& Hebble Navigation had to wait until after Steers's death. In the opinion of Professor A.W. Skempton, Steers was the most distinguished civil engineer before Smeaton's time.[br]Further ReadingHenry Peet, 1932, Thomas Steers. The Engineer of Liverpool's First Dock; reprinted with App. from Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire 82:163– 242.JHB -
36 Cuff
Cuffs were originally formed by the turning back of the termination of the sleeves at the wrist, and are first visible in ladies' dresses in the 15th century. In the reign of Henry VIII " three yards of crimson cloth of gold damask" are allowed for " the edging, facing, and cuffs " of a gown for the queen. Ben Johnson in 1629 mentions " the cuffs of Flanders." It is not definite whether of Flemish fashion, or of Flemish material. The Low Countries were celebrated for the manufacture of linen, and Flanders disputes with Venice the invention of lace. -
37 Methuen Treaty
(1703)Named for the English envoy to Lisbon, John Methuen, the commercial treaty that came to be known by his name was signed on 27 December 1703. This treaty followed the May 1703 treaties of alliance between Portugal, England, and the Low Countries and the Hapsburg Empire that were related to the War of Spanish Succession. The Methuen Treaty stipulated that thenceforth Portuguese wines would be favored as exports to England in the same way that English woolen imports to Portugal would have advantages. Since England was not importing French wines due to a war with France, and since English merchant-shippers in Portugal would benefit from the agreement, the Methuen Treaty was viewed as advantageous to all parties involved. With only three articles, the treaty agreed that both Portuguese wines and English woolens would be exempt from custom duties and that each nation had to ratify the treaty within two months. The Methuen Treaty became the keystone of Anglo-Portuguese commercial relations for at least the next century, but several historians have suggested that it favored England more than Portugal. -
38 Gartside
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]fl. 1760s England[br]English manufacturer who set up what was probably the first power-driven weaving shed.[br]A loom on which more than one ribbon could be woven at once may have been invented by Anton Möller at Danzig in 1586. It arrived in England from the Low Countries and was being used in London by 1616 and in Lancashire by 1680. Means were being devised in Switzerland c.1730 for driving these looms by power, but this was prohibited because it was feared that these looms would deprive other weavers of work. In England, a patent was taken out by John Kay of Bury and John Stell of Keighley in 1745 for improvements to these looms and it is probably that Gartside received permission to use this invention. In Manchester, Gartside set up a mill with swivel looms driven by a water-wheel; this was probably prior to 1758, because a man was brought up at the Lancaster Assizes in March of that year for threatening to burn down "the Engine House of Mr. Gartside in Manchester, Merchant". He set up his factory near Garrett Hall on the south side of Manchester and it may still have been running in 1764. However, the enterprise failed because it was necessary for each loom to be attended by one person in order to prevent any mishap occurring, and therefore it was more economic to use hand-frames, which the operatives could control more easily.[br]Further ReadingJ.Aikin, 1795, A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles Round Manchester, London (provides the best account of Gartside's factory).Both R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester; and A.P.Wadsworth and J. de L.Mann, 1931, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, Manchester, make use of Aikin's material as they describe the development of weaving.A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London (covers the development of narrow fabric weaving).RLH -
39 Shrapnel, General Henry
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 3 June 1761 Bradford-on-Avon, Englandd. 13 March 1842 Southampton, England[br]English professional soldier and inventor of shrapnel ammunition.[br]The youngest of nine children, Shrapnel was commissioned into the Royal Artillery in July 1779. His early military service was in Newfoundland and it was on his return to England in 1784 that he began to interest himself in artillery ammunition. His particular concern was to develop a round that would be more effective against infantry than the existing solid cannon-ball and canister round. The result was a hollow, spherical shell filled with lead musket balls and fitted with a bursting charge and fuse. His development of the shell was interrupted by active service in the Low Countries in 1793–4, during which he was wounded, and duty in the West Indies. Nevertheless, in 1803 the British Army adopted his shell, which during the next twelve years played a significant part on the battlefield.In 1804 Shrapnel was appointed Assistant Inspector of Artillery and made further contributions to the science of gunnery, drawing up a series of range tables to improve accuracy of fire, inventing the brass tangent slide for better sighting of guns, and improving the production of howitzers and mortars by way of the invention of parabolic chambers. His services were recognized in 1814 by a Treasury grant of £1,200 per annum for life. He was promoted Major-General in 1819 and appointed a Colonel-Commandant of the Royal Artillery in 1827, and in the 1830s there was talk of him being made a baronet, but nothing came of it. Shrapnel remains a current military term, although modern bursting shells rely on the fragmentation of the casing of the projectile for their effect rather than his original concept of having shot inside them.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsColonel-Commandant of the Royal Artillery 1827.Further ReadingDictionary of National Biography, 1897, Vol. 52, London: Smith, Elder.CMBiographical history of technology > Shrapnel, General Henry
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40 Flemish Lace
A point lace of fine quality formed by what is known as the Flemish stitch. Flanders and Italy dispute the invention of this pillow lace. Lace of home manufacture was worn in the Low Countries in the 15th century. Similar lace to the Flemish is made in England and called Trolly.
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