highest+development

advance [əd'vɑ:ns]

1 transitive verb

(a) (move forward → clock, tape, film) faire avancer; (→ time, event, chess piece) avancer;

∎ the date of the meeting was advanced by one week la réunion a été avancée d'une semaine

(b) (further → project, work) avancer; (→ interest, cause) promouvoir; (→ growth, development) accélérer;

∎ this discovery has advanced our research by months cette découverte nous a fait gagner plusieurs mois de recherches

(c) (suggest → idea, proposition) avancer, mettre en avant; (→ opinion) avancer, émettre; (→ explanation) avancer

(d) Finance (money) avancer, faire une avance de;

∎ we advanced her £100 on her salary nous lui avons avancé 100 livres sur son salaire;

∎ we will advance him £500 before completion of the contract nous lui verserons un acompte de 500 livres avant l'achèvement des travaux;

∎ sum advanced avance f, acompte m

(e) formal (increase) augmenter, hausser

2 intransitive verb

(a) (go forward) avancer, s'avancer;

∎ to advance on or towards sth avancer ou s'avancer vers qch;

∎ the army advanced on Paris l'armée avançait ou marchait sur Paris

(b) (make progress) avancer, progresser, faire des progrès

(c) (time) avancer, s'écouler; (evening, winter) avancer

(d) formal Commerce & Finance (price, shares, rent) augmenter (de prix), monter;

∎ the shares advanced to their highest point in May les actions ont atteint leur valeur la plus haute au mois de mai

(e) (be promoted) avancer, obtenir de l'avancement; Military monter en grade

3 noun

(a) (forward movement) avance f, marche f en avant; Military avance f, progression f;

∎ the enemy planned their advance on the city l'ennemi a organisé son avance ou sa marche sur la ville;

∎ figurative the advance of old age le vieillissement

(b) (progress) progrès m;

∎ the great advance in medicine le progrès ou les progrès en médecine

(c) Finance (of funds) avance f, acompte m;

∎ he asked for an advance of £200 on his salary il a demandé une avance de 200 livres sur son salaire;

∎ an advance on royalties une avance sur droits d'auteur;

∎ advances on securities or against collateral prêts mpl sur titres

(d) formal Commerce & Finance (in price, rent) hausse f, augmentation f

(e) Commerce (increase at auction)

∎ any advance? qui dit mieux?;

∎ any advance on a hundred? cent, qui dit mieux?

4 compound-forming noun

(prior) préalable

5 advances plural noun

avances fpl;

∎ to make advances to sb faire des avances à qn

6 in advance adverb

(beforehand → pay, thank) à l'avance, d'avance; (→ prepare, reserve, write, know) à l'avance;

∎ well in advance largement à l'avance;

∎ we had to pay two weeks in advance il a fallu qu'on paie deux semaines d'avance;

∎ the agency asked for £50 in advance l'agence a demandé 50 livres d'avance;

∎ thanking you in advance (in letter) en vous remerciant à l'avance, avec mes remerciements anticipés;

∎ he sent the messenger on in advance (ahead) il a envoyé le messager devant

7 in advance of preposition

avant;

∎ they arrived in advance of their guests ils sont arrivés en avance sur ou avant leurs invités;

∎ their computer technology is far in advance of anything we have ils sont très en avance sur nous en matière d'informatique

►► Finance advance account compte m d'avances;

advance booking réservation f à l'avance;

∎ advance booking is advisable il est recommandé de réserver à l'avance;

advance booking office guichet m de location;

advance copy (of book) exemplaire m de lancement; (of speech) texte m distribué à l'avance;

Finance advance dividend dividende m anticipé;

advance group (gen) groupe m de reconnaissance; Military détachement m précurseur;

Military advance guard avant-garde f;

American Politics advance man organisateur m de la publicité (pour une campagne politique);

advance notice préavis m, avertissement m;

advance party (gen) groupe m de reconnaissance; Military détachement m précurseur;

Finance advance payment paiement m anticipé, paiement m par anticipation;

Military advance post poste m avancé;

advance publicity publicité f d'amorçage;

Advance Purchase Excursion = tarif préférentiel sujet à des restrictions de délai d'achat;

advance warning avertissement m

level ['levəl]

niveau ⇒ 1 (a)-(d), 1 (f) hauteur ⇒ 1 (a) taux ⇒ 1 (b) échelon ⇒ 1 (c) étage ⇒ 1 (f) plat ⇒ 1 (g), 2 (a) au même niveau ⇒ 2 (b) à la même hauteur ⇒ 2 (b) horizontal ⇒ 2 (c) de/à niveau ⇒ 2 (c) à égalité ⇒ 2 (d) calme ⇒ 2 (e) à l'horizontale ⇒ 3 aplanir ⇒ 4 (a) niveler ⇒ 4 (a)

( British pt & pp levelled, cont levelling, American pt & pp leveled, cont leveling)

1 noun

(a) (height → in a horizontal plane) niveau m; (→ in a vertical plane) hauteur f;

∎ at ground level au niveau du sol;

∎ water seeks its own level c'est le principe des vases communicants; figurative on se heurte toujours à ses propres limites;

∎ the level of the river has risen overnight le niveau de la rivière a monté pendant la nuit;

∎ the flood waters have reached the level of the bridge la crue a atteint le niveau du pont;

∎ the sink is on a level with the work surface l'évier est au niveau du ou de niveau avec le plan de travail;

∎ on the same level au même niveau

(b) (amount) niveau m; (percentage) taux m;

∎ noise levels are far too high le niveau sonore est bien trop élevé;

∎ a low level of sugar in the bloodstream un faible taux de sucre dans le sang;

∎ inflation has reached new levels l'inflation a atteint de nouveaux sommets;

∎ check the oil level (in car) vérifiez le niveau d'huile;

∎ her ambition is on a level with mine son ambition est du même ordre que la mienne;

∎ Computing levels of grey échelle f des gris

(c) (rank) niveau m, échelon m;

∎ at cabinet/national level à l'échelon ministériel/national;

∎ at a regional level au niveau régional;

∎ talks are being held at the highest level on négocie au plus haut niveau

(d) (standard) niveau m;

∎ her level of English is poor elle n'a pas un très bon niveau en anglais;

∎ students at beginners' level étudiants mpl au niveau débutant;

∎ a high level of competence/intelligence un haut niveau de compétence/d'intelligence;

∎ they're not on the same level at all ils ne sont pas du tout du même niveau, ils n'ont absolument pas le même niveau;

∎ she's on a different level from the others elle n'est pas au même niveau que les autres;

∎ to come down to sb's level se mettre au niveau de qn;

∎ don't descend or sink to their level ne t'abaisse pas à leur niveau

(e) (point of view)

∎ on a personal level, I really like him sur le plan personnel, je l'aime beaucoup;

∎ on a practical level du point de vue pratique

(f) (storey) niveau m, étage m;

∎ the library is on level three la bibliothèque est au niveau trois ou au troisième étage

(g) (flat land) plat m;

∎ 100 km/h on the level 100 km/h sur le plat

(h) (for woodwork, building etc)

∎ (spirit) level niveau m (à bulle)

(i) familiar (idiom)

∎ on the level (honest) honnête^□, réglo;

∎ do you think he's on the level? tu crois qu'il est réglo ou que c'est un type réglo?;

∎ I'm giving it to you on the level je te dis ça franchement ou sans détour;

∎ this deal is definitely on the level cette affaire est tout ce qu'il y a de plus réglo

2 adjective

(a) (flat) plat;

∎ a level spoonful une cuillerée rase;

∎ to make sth level aplanir qch

(b) (at the same height) au même niveau, à la même hauteur; (at the same standard) au même niveau;

∎ the terrace is level with the pool la terrasse est au même niveau que ou de plain-pied avec la piscine;

∎ his head is just level with my shoulder sa tête m'arrive exactement à l'épaule

(c) (horizontal) horizontal; (ground) de niveau, à niveau

(d) (equal) à égalité;

∎ the leading cars are almost level les voitures de tête sont presque à la même hauteur;

∎ to draw level se trouver à égalité;

∎ the other runners drew level with me les autres coureurs m'ont rattrapé

(e) (calm, steady) calme, mesuré;

∎ to speak in a level voice parler d'une voix calme ou posée;

∎ she gave me a level look elle me regarda posément;

∎ to keep a level head garder la tête froide

(f) familiar (honest) honnête^□, réglo;

∎ you're not being level with me tu ne joues pas franc jeu avec moi

(g) (idioms)

∎ to do one's level best faire de son mieux;

∎ she did her level best to irritate me elle a tout fait pour me mettre en colère;

∎ British it's level pegging (between the two) il y a égalité;

∎ they're level pegging ils sont à égalité

3 adverb

à l'horizontale;

∎ hold the tray level tenez le plateau à l'horizontale ou bien à plat;

∎ Aviation to fly level voler en palier

4 transitive verb

(a) (flatten) aplanir, niveler;

∎ to level a town (to the ground) raser une ville

(b) (aim)

∎ to level a gun at sb braquer une arme sur qn;

∎ to level accusations at sb lancer des accusations contre qn;

∎ a lot of criticism has been levelled at me on m'a beaucoup critiqué

(c) (in surveying) effectuer des opérations de nivellement dans, niveler

5 intransitive verb

∎ familiar to level with sb être franc avec qn^□, jouer franc jeu avec qn^□

►► British & French Canadian level crossing passage m à niveau;

Aviation level flight vol m horizontal

➲ level down separable transitive verb

(surface) aplanir, niveler; (standard) niveler par le bas

➲ level off

1 intransitive verb

(a) (production, rise, development) s'équilibrer, se stabiliser;

∎ the curve on the graph levels off at this point la courbe du graphique se stabilise à partir d'ici;

∎ the team's performance has levelled off this season les résultats de l'équipe se sont stabilisés cette saison

(b) Aviation amorcer un palier

2 separable transitive verb

(flatten) aplatir, niveler

➲ level out

1 intransitive verb

(a) (road, surface) s'aplanir

(b) (stabilize) se stabiliser

2 separable transitive verb

niveler

➲ level up separable transitive verb

niveler (par le haut)

SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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Interested from childhood in anything mechanical, as a teenager Armstrong constructed a variety of wireless equipment in the attic of his parents' home, including spark-gap transmitters and receivers with iron-filing "coherer" detectors capable of producing weak Morse-code signals. In 1912, while still a student of engineering at Columbia University, he applied positive, i.e. regenerative, feedback to a Lee De Forest triode amplifier to just below the point of oscillation and obtained a gain of some 1,000 times, giving a receiver sensitivity very much greater than hitherto possible. Furthermore, by allowing the circuit to go into full oscillation he found he could generate stable continuous-waves, making possible the first reliable CW radio transmitter. Sadly, his claim to priority with this invention, for which he filed US patents in 1913, the year he graduated from Columbia, led to many years of litigation with De Forest, to whom the US Supreme Court finally, but unjustly, awarded the patent in 1934. The engineering world clearly did not agree with this decision, for the Institution of Radio Engineers did not revoke its previous award of a gold medal and he subsequently received the highest US scientific award, the Franklin Medal, for this discovery.

During the First World War, after some time as an instructor at Columbia University, he joined the US Signal Corps laboratories in Paris, where in 1918 he invented the superheterodyne, a major contribution to radio-receiver design and for which he filed a patent in 1920. The principle of this circuit, which underlies virtually all modern radio, TV and radar reception, is that by using a local oscillator to convert, or "heterodyne", a wanted signal to a lower, fixed, "intermediate" frequency it is possible to obtain high amplification and selectivity without the need to "track" the tuning of numerous variable circuits.

Returning to Columbia after the war and eventually becoming Professor of Electrical Engineering, he made a fortune from the sale of his patent rights and used part of his wealth to fund his own research into further problems in radio communication, particularly that of receiver noise. In 1933 he filed four patents covering the use of wide-band frequency modulation (FM) to achieve low-noise, high-fidelity sound broadcasting, but unable to interest RCA he eventually built a complete broadcast transmitter at his own expense in 1939 to prove the advantages of his system. Unfortunately, there followed another long battle to protect and exploit his patents, and exhausted and virtually ruined he took his own life in 1954, just as the use of FM became an established technique.

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SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Ernest-Sylvain Bollée was the founder of an extensive dynasty of bellfounders based in Le Mans and in Orléans. He and his three sons, Amédée (1844–1917), Ernest-Sylvain fils (1846–1917) and Auguste (1847-?), were involved in work and patents on steam-and petrol-driven cars, on wind engines and on hydraulic rams. The presence of the Bollées' car industry in Le Mans was a factor in the establishment of the car races that are held there.

In 1868 Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père took out a patent for a wind engine, which at that time was well established in America and in England. In both these countries, variable-shuttered as well as fixed-blade wind engines were in production and patented, but the Ernest-Sylvain Bollée patent was for a type of wind engine that had not been seen before and is more akin to the water-driven turbine of the Jonval type, with its basic principle being parallel to the "rotor" and "stator". The wind drives through a fixed ring of blades on to a rotating ring that has a slightly greater number of blades. The blades of the fixed ring are curved in the opposite direction to those on the rotating blades and thus the air is directed onto the latter, causing it to rotate at a considerable speed: this is the "rotor". For greater efficiency a cuff of sheet iron can be attached to the "stator", giving a tunnel effect and driving more air at the "rotor". The head of this wind engine is turned to the wind by means of a wind-driven vane mounted in front of the blades. The wind vane adjusts the wind angle to enable the wind engine to run at a constant speed.

The fact that this wind engine was invented by the owner of a brass foundry, with all the gear trains between the wind vane and the head of the tower being of the highest-quality brass and, therefore, small in scale, lay behind its success. Also, it was of prefabricated construction, so that fixed lengths of cast-iron pillar were delivered, complete with twelve treads of cast-iron staircase fixed to the outside and wrought-iron stays. The drive from the wind engine was taken down the inside of the pillar to pumps at ground level.

Whilst the wind engines were being built for wealthy owners or communes, the work of the foundry continued. The three sons joined the family firm as partners and produced several steam-driven vehicles. These vehicles were the work of Amédée père and were l'Obéissante (1873); the Autobus (1880–3), of which some were built in Berlin under licence; the tram Bollée-Dalifol (1876); and the private car La Mancelle (1878). Another important line, in parallel with the pumping mechanism required for the wind engines, was the development of hydraulic rams, following the Montgolfier patent. In accordance with French practice, the firm was split three ways when Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père died. Amédée père inherited the car side of the business, but it is due to Amédée fils (1867– 1926) that the principal developments in car manufacture came into being. He developed the petrol-driven car after the impetus given by his grandfather, his father and his uncle Ernest-Sylvain fils. In 1887 he designed a four-stroke single-cylinder engine, although he also used engines designed by others such as Peugeot. He produced two luxurious saloon cars before putting Torpilleur on the road in 1898; this car competed in the Tour de France in 1899. Whilst designing other cars, Amédée's son Léon (1870–1913) developed the Voiturette, in 1896, and then began general manufacture of small cars on factory lines. The firm ceased work after a merger with the English firm of Morris in 1926. Auguste inherited the Eolienne or wind-engine side of the business; however, attracted to the artistic life, he sold out to Ernest Lebert in 1898 and settled in the Paris of the Impressionists. Lebert developed the wind-engine business and retained the basic "stator-rotor" form with a conventional lattice tower. He remained in Le Mans, carrying on the business of the manufacture of wind engines, pumps and hydraulic machinery, describing himself as a "Civil Engineer".

The hydraulic-ram business fell to Ernest-Sylvain fils and continued to thrive from a solid base of design and production. The foundry in Le Mans is still there but, more importantly, the bell foundry of Dominique Bollée in Saint-Jean-de-Braye in Orléans is still at work casting bells in the old way.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Railways and locomotives

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The son of a "coal viewer", Curr was brought up in the West Durham colliery district. In 1777 he went to the Duke of Norfolk's collieries at Sheffield, where in 1880 he was appointed Superintendent. There coal was conveyed underground in baskets on sledges: Curr replaced the wicker sledges with wheeled corves, i.e. small four-wheeled wooden wagons, running on "rail-roads" with cast-iron rails and hauled from the coal-face to the shaft bottom by horses. The rails employed hitherto had usually consisted of plates of iron, the flange being on the wheels of the wagon. Curr's new design involved flanges on the rails which guided the vehicles, the wheels of which were unflanged and could run on any hard surface. He appears to have left no precise record of the date that he did this, and surviving records have been interpreted as implying various dates between 1776 and 1787. In 1787 John Buddle paid tribute to the efficiency of the rails of Curr's type, which were first used for surface transport by Joseph Butler in 1788 at his iron furnace at Wingerworth near Chesterfield: their use was then promoted widely by Benjamin Outram, and they were adopted in many other English mines. They proved serviceable until the advent of locomotives demanded different rails.

In 1788 Curr also developed a system for drawing a full corve up a mine shaft while lowering an empty one, with guides to separate them. At the surface the corves were automatically emptied by tipplers. Four years later he was awarded a patent for using double ropes for lifting heavier loads. As the weight of the rope itself became a considerable problem with the increasing depth of the shafts, Curr invented the flat hemp rope, patented in 1798, which consisted of several small round ropes stitched together and lapped upon itself in winding. It acted as a counterbalance and led to a reduction in the time and cost of hoisting: at the beginning of a run the loaded rope began to coil upon a small diameter, gradually increasing, while the unloaded rope began to coil off a large diameter, gradually decreasing.

Curr's book The Coal Viewer (1797) is the earliest-known engineering work on railway track and it also contains the most elaborate description of a Newcomen pumping engine, at the highest state of its development. He became an acknowledged expert on construction of Newcomen-type atmospheric engines, and in 1792 he established a foundry to make parts for railways and engines.

Because of the poor financial results of the Duke of Norfolk's collieries at the end of the century, Curr was dismissed in 1801 despite numerous inventions and improvements which he had introduced. After his dismissal, six more of his patents were concerned with rope-making: the one he gained in 1813 referred to the application of flat ropes to horse-gins and perpendicular drum-shafts of steam engines. Curr also introduced the use of inclined planes, where a descending train of full corves pulled up an empty one, and he was one of the pioneers employing fixed steam engines for hauling. He may have resided in France for some time before his death.

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SUBJECT AREA: Horology, Metallurgy

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Guillaume came from a family of clock-and watchmakers. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Neuchâtel and at Zurich Polytechnic, from which he received his doctorate in 1883 for a thesis on electrolytic capacitors. In the same year he joined the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres in France, where he was to spend the rest of his working life. He retired as Director in 1936. At the bureau he was involved in distributing the national standards of the metre to countries subscribing to the General Conference on Weights and Measures that had been held in 1889. This made him aware of the crucial effect of thermal expansion on the lengths of the standards and he was prompted to look for alternative materials that would be less costly than the platinum alloys which had been used. While studying nickel steels he made the surprising discovery that the thermal expansion of certain alloy compositions was less than that of the constituent metals. This led to the development of a steel containing about 36 per cent nickel that had a very low thermal coefficient of expansion. This alloy was subsequently named "invar", an abbreviation of invariable. It was well known that changes in temperature affected the timekeeping of clocks by altering the length of the pendulum, and various attempts had been made to overcome this defect, most notably the mercury-compensated pendulum of Graham and the gridiron pendulum of Harrison. However, an invar pendulum offered a simpler and more effective method of temperature compensation and was used almost exclusively for pendulum clocks of the highest precision.

Changes in temperature can also affect the timekeeping of watches and chronometers, but this is due mainly to changes in the elasticity or stiffness of the balance spring rather than to changes in the size of the balance itself. To compensate for this effect Guillaume developed another more complex nickel alloy, "elinvar" (elasticity invariable), whose elasticity remained almost constant with changes in temperature. This had two practical consequences: the construction of watches could be simplified (by using monometallic balances) and more accurate chronometers could be made.

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See also: Le Roy, Pierre

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Mies van der Rohe was the son of a stonemason and his early constructional training came from his father. As a young man he gained experience of the modern school from study of the architecture of the earlier leaders, notably Peter Behrens, Hendrik Berlage and Frank Lloyd Wright. He commenced architectural practice in 1913 and soon after the First World War was establishing his own version of modern architecture. His building materials were always of the highest quality, of marble, stone, glass and, especially, steel. He stripped his designs of all extraneous decoration: more than any of his contemporaries he followed the theme of elegance, functionalism and an ascetic concentration on essentials. He believed that architectural design should not look backwards but should reflect the contemporary achievement of advanced technology in both its construction and the materials used, and he began early in his career to act upon these beliefs. Typical was his early concrete and glass office building of 1922, after which, more importantly, came his designs for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929. These designs included his famous Barcelona chair, made from chrome steel and leather in a geometrical design, one which has survived as a classic and is still in production. Another milestone was his Tugendhat House in Brno (1930), a long, low, rectilinear structure in glass and steel that set a pattern for many later buildings of this type. In 1930 Mies followed his colleagues as third Director of the Bauhaus, but due to the rise of National Socialism in Germany it was closed in 1933. He finally left Germany for the USA in 1937, and the following year he took up his post as Director of Architecture in Chicago at what is now known as the Illinois Institute of Technology and where he remained for twenty years. In America Mies van der Rohe continued to develop his work upon his original thesis. His buildings are always recognizable for their elegance, fine proportions, high-quality materials and clean, geometrical forms; nearly all are of glass and steel in rectangular shapes. The structure and design evolved according to the individual needs of each commission, and there were three fundamental types of design. One type was the single or grouped high-rise tower, built for apartments for the wealthy, as in his Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948–51), or for city-centre offices, as in his Seagram Building in New York (1954–8, with Philip Johnson) or his Chicago Federal Centre (1964). Another form was the long, low rectangle based upon the earlier Tugendhat House and seen again in the New National Gallery in Berlin (1965–8). Third, there were the grouped schemes when the commission called for buildings of varied purpose on a single, large site. Here Mies van der Rohe achieved a variety and interest in the different shapes and heights of buildings set out in spatial harmony of landscape. Some examples of this type of scheme were housing estates (Lafayette Park Housing Development in Detroit, 1955–6), while others were for educational, commercial or shopping requirements, as at the Toronto Dominion Centre (1963–9).

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SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Harry Ricardo was the eldest child and only son of Halsey Ricardo (architect) and Catherine Rendel (daughter of Alexander Rendel, senior partner in the firm of consulting civil engineers that later became Rendel, Palmer and Tritton). He was educated at Rugby School and at Cambridge. While still at school, he designed and made a steam engine to drive his bicycle, and by the time he went up to Cambridge in 1903 he was a skilled craftsman. At Cambridge, he made a motor cycle powered by a petrol engine of his own design, and with this he won a fuel-consumption competition by covering almost 40 miles (64 km) on a quart (1.14 1) of petrol. This brought him to the attention of Professor Bertram Hopkinson, who invited him to help with research on turbulence and pre-ignition in internal combustion engines. After leaving Cambridge in 1907, he joined his grandfather's firm and became head of the design department for mechanical equipment used in civil engineering. In 1916 he was asked to help with the problem of loading tanks on to railway trucks. He was then given the task of designing and organizing the manufacture of engines for tanks, and the success of this enterprise encouraged him to set up his own establishment at Shoreham, devoted to research on, and design and development of, internal combustion engines.

Leading on from the work with Hopkinson were his discoveries on the suppression of detonation in spark-ignition engines. He noted that the current paraffinic fuels were more prone to detonation than the aromatics, which were being discarded as they did not comply with the existing specifications because of their high specific gravity. He introduced the concepts of "highest useful compression ratio" (HUCR) and "toluene number" for fuel samples burned in a special variable compression-ratio engine. The toluene number was the proportion of toluene in heptane that gave the same HUCR as the fuel sample. Later, toluene was superseded by iso-octane to give the now familiar octane rating. He went on to improve the combustion in side-valve engines by increasing turbulence, shortening the flame path and minimizing the clearance between piston and head by concentrating the combustion space over the valves. By these means, the compression ratio could be increased to that used by overhead-valve engines before detonation intervened. The very hot poppet valve restricted the advancement of all internal combustion engines, so he turned his attention to eliminating it by use of the single sleeve-valve, this being developed with support from the Air Ministry. By the end of the Second World War some 130,000 such aero-engines had been built by Bristol, Napier and Rolls-Royce before the piston aero-engine was superseded by the gas turbine of Whittle. He even contributed to the success of the latter by developing a fuel control system for it.

Concurrent with this was work on the diesel engine. He designed and developed the engine that halved the fuel consumption of London buses. He invented and perfected the "Comet" series of combustion chambers for diesel engines, and the Company was consulted by the vast majority of international internal combustion engine manufacturers. He published and lectured widely and fully deserved his many honours; he was elected FRS in 1929, was President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1944–5 and was knighted in 1948. This shy and modest, though very determined man was highly regarded by all who came into contact with him. It was said that research into internal combustion engines, his family and boats constituted all that he would wish from life.

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SUBJECT AREA: Horology

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Riefler's father was a scientific-instrument maker and clockmaker who in 1841 had founded the firm of Clemens Riefler to make mathematical instruments. After graduating in engineering from the University of Munich Sigmund worked as a surveyor, but when his father died in 1876 he and his brothers ran the family firm. Sigmund was responsible for technical development and in this capacity he designed a new system of drawing-instruments which established the reputation of the firm. He also worked to improve the performance of the precision clock, and in 1889 he was granted a patent for a new form of escapement. This escapement succeeded in reducing the interference of the clock mechanism with the free swinging of the pendulum by impulsing the pendulum through its suspension strip. It proved to be the greatest advance in precision timekeeping since the introduction of the dead-beat escapement about two hundred years earlier. When the firm of Clemens Riefler began to produce clocks with this escapement in 1890, they replaced clocks with Graham's dead-beat escapement as the standard regulator for use in observatories and other applications where the highest precision was required. In 1901 a movement was fitted with electrical rewind and was encapsulated in an airtight case, at low pressure, so that the timekeeping was not affected by changes in barometric pressure. This became the standard practice for precision clocks. Although the accuracy of the Riefler clock was later surpassed by the Shortt free-pendulum clock and the quartz clock, it remained in production until 1965, by which time over six hundred instruments had been made.

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See also: Marrison, Warren Alvin

 

адсорбированный дифтерийно-столбнячный анатоксин с уменьшенным содержанием дифтерийного анатоксина
АДС-М
—
[Англо-русский глоссарий основных терминов по вакцинологии и иммунизации. Всемирная организация здравоохранения, 2009 г.]

Тематики

• вакцинология, иммунизация

Синонимы

• АДС-М

EN

• tetanus-diphtheria toxoid with reduced amount of diphtheria toxoid
• Td

 

временная задержка
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• time delay
• TD

 

время задержки
—
[Интент]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The relay remains energized for the duration of the timer.
[Schneider Electric]

Реле остается включенным до истечения времени задержки.
[Перевод Интент]

Тематики

• электротехника, основные понятия

EN

• delay period
• delay time
• TD
• time delay

 

время отправления
—
[[Англо-русский словарь сокращений транспортно-экспедиторских и коммерческих терминов и выражений ФИАТА]]

Тематики

• услуги транспортно-экспедиторские

EN

• TD
• time of departure

 

датчик
Средство измерений, предназначенное для выработки сигнала измерительной информации в форме, удобной для передачи, дальнейшего преобразования, обработки и (или) хранения, но не поддающейся непосредственному восприятию наблюдателем (по РМГ 29).
[ ГОСТ Р 51086-97]

датчик
Конструктивно обособленный первичный преобразователь, от которого поступают измерительные сигналы (он «дает» информацию).
Примечания
1. Датчик может быть вынесен на значительное расстояние от средства измерений, принимающего его сигналы.
2. В области измерений ионизирующих излучений применяют термин детектор.
Пример. Датчики запущенного метеорологического радиозонда передают измерительную информацию о температуре, давлении, влажности и других параметрах атмосферы.
[РМГ 29-99]

датчик
Конструктивно обособленный первичный преобразователь, от которого поступают измерительные сигналы.
[РД 01.120.00-КТН-228-06]

датчик
Первичный преобразователь, в котором изменения значений выходного воздействия или сигнала с заданной точностью соответствуют изменениям значений входного воздействия или сигнала.
[Сборник рекомендуемых терминов. Выпуск 107. Теория управления.
 Академия наук СССР. Комитет научно-технической терминологии. 1984 г.]

КЛАССИФИКАЦИЯ

Классификация по виду выходных величин

• Активные (генераторные)
• Пассивные (параметрические)

Классификация по измеряемому параметру

• Датчики давления
  • абсолютного давления
  • избыточного давления
  • разрежения
  • давления-разрежения
  • разности давления
  • гидростатического давления
• Датчики расхода
  • Механические счетчики расхода
  • Перепадомеры
  • Ультразвуковые расходомеры
  • Электромагнитные расходомеры
  • Кориолисовые расходомеры
  • Вихревые расходомеры
• Уровня
  • Поплавковые
  • Ёмкостные
  • Радарные
  • Ультразвуковые
• Температуры
  • Термопара
  • Термометр сопротивления
  • Пирометр
• Датчик концентрации
  • Кондуктометры
• Радиоактивности (также именуются детекторами радиоактивности или излучений)
  • Ионизационная камера
  • Датчик прямого заряда
• Перемещения
  • Абсолютный шифратор
  • Относительный шифратор
  • LVDT
• Положения
  • Контактные
  • Бесконтактные
• Фотодатчики
  • Фотодиод
  • Фотосенсор
• Датчик углового положения
  • Сельсин
  • Преобразователь угол-код
  • RVDT
• Датчик вибрации
  • Датчик Пьезоэлектрический
  • Датчик вихретоковый
• Датчик механических величин
  • Датчик относительного расширения ротора
  • Датчик абсолютного расширения
• Датчик дуговой защиты

Классификация по принципу действия

• Оптические датчики (фотодатчики)
• Магнитоэлектрический датчик (На основе эффекта Холла)
• Пьезоэлектрический датчик
• Тензо преобразователь
• Ёмкостной датчик
• Потенциометрический датчик
• Индуктивный датчик

Классификация по характеру выходного сигнала

• Дискретные
• Аналоговые
• Цифровые
• Импульсные

Классификация по среде передачи сигналов

• Проводные
• Беспроводные

Классификация по количеству входных величин

• Одномерные
• Многомерные

Классификация по технологии изготовления

• Элементные
• Интегральные

[ http://omop.su/article/49/74929.html]

Тематики

• автоматизация, основные понятия
• датчики и преобразователи физических величин
• метрология, основные понятия
• средства автоматизации прочие

Обобщающие термины

• элементы систем управления

EN

• gage
• pick-up unit
• pickoff
• sender
• sensor
• TD
• transmitting transducer

 

останов для разъединения
(МСЭ-Т J.177).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

Тематики

• электросвязь, основные понятия

EN

• timeout for disconnect
• TD

 

передача и распределение
(напр. электроэнергии)
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• transmission and distribution
• TD

 

подтверждение технических характеристик
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• technical demonstration
• TD

 

разность по времени
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• time difference
• TD

 

с приводом от турбины
с турбоприводом
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

Синонимы

• с турбоприводом

EN

• turbine driven
• TD

 

телеметрические данные
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• telemetry data
• TD

 

теоретическая плотность
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• theoretical density
• TD

 

теоретически сухой
абсолютно сухой
(напр. о воздухе, угле)
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

Синонимы

• абсолютно сухой

EN

• theoretically dry
• TD
• T.D.

 

термодиффузия
Процесс разделения, напр. изотопов, обусловленный разностью температур
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• thermal diffusion
• TD
• thermodiffusion

 

техническая разработка
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• technical development
• TD

 

технический делегат
ТД
Представитель МСФ, на которого обычно возлагается ответственность за обеспечение всех технических аспектов планирования и управления Олимпийскими соревнованиями. В отношении технических вопросов ТД наделены самыми большими полномочиями в зоне проведения соревнований. (См. Правило 47 Олимпийской хартии и Официальные разъяснения к нему)
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

EN

technical delegate
TD
Representatives of IFs typically charged with responsibility of ensuring that all technical aspects of planning and managing Olympic competition are undertaken. Usually considered the highest IF authority in the field of play in relation to all technical matters. (See Olympic Charter Rule 47 and its Bye-law)
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики

• спорт (общая терминология)

Синонимы

• ТД

EN

• TD
• technical delegate

 

транспортировочная тележка
(напр. для топливных кассет на АЭС)
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• transfer dolly
• TD

 

ухудшение передачи
(МСЭ-Т G.705).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

Тематики

• электросвязь, основные понятия

EN

• transmit degrade
• TD

2.1.12 разность времени (Time Difference; TD): Интервал времени между моментами приема сигналов от ведущей и ведомой станций на одинаковой частоте повторения групп радиоимпульсов.

Источник: ГОСТ Р 53168-2008: Система радионавигации "Чайка". Сигналы передающих станций. Технические требования оригинал документа