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41 operation
операция; кампания; боевые [военные] действия; бой; сражение; эксплуатация; обслуживание; работа; pl. оперативное управление [отдел, отделение]; см. тж. action, battle, combatcounter C3 operation — операция [действия] против систем руководства, управления и связи [оперативного управления и связи]
counternaval forces naval operation (in closed or open offshore areas) — морская операция по разгрому ВМС противника (в закрытых или прилегающих к побережью открытых морских районах)
— breaching operation— exploitation-type operation— guarding security operations— missile operations— tactical operations— urban ized operations* * * -
42 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
43 test
1. испытание, испытания; проверка; контроль; тестирование; опробование;см. тж. testing/ испытывать; проверять; контролировать; тестировать; опробовать2. тест; проба3. критерий; признакaccelerate-stop testsaccelerated mission testacceleration-deceleration testaerobatic flight testsaeroelastic testsagility testair resonance testair-to-air testair-to-air combat testairframe testairspeed calibration testall-attitude flight testasymmetric loads testsasymmetric wing sweep flight testsauto-guidance testsbefore-flight-rated testsbench testbiaxial fatigue testbird impact testbird ingestion testbird strike testbird strike testsburn-in testburst pressure testcatapult testscentrifugal load testcentrifuge testsclean configuration testclosed-loop testcockpit workload testcombined-systems testscompatibility testcomponent testscompression testcomputer-aided testconstant amplitude testcontinued takeoff testscontrol testconvergence testcooling testcrack-detection testscrash testcreep testcrush testscyclic testsdamage tolerance testdamage resistance testdeparture testdepressed-trajectory testdestruction testdevelopment testsdivergence testsdual-frequency testdurability testdynamometer testselectromagnetic interference testselectromagnetic-vulnerability testemergency survival testEMI testsendurance testengine reingestion testenvironmental testexploratory testsfatigue testflammability testflaps up landing testsflexure testflight clearance testflight simulation testsflight-by-flight fatigue testflight simulation fatigue testsflow field testsflow visualization testsflutter testflutter-proof testsflyover testsforce testsforced oscillation testsforeign object damage testfree oscillation testsfree spinning facility testsfree-flight testfree-to-roll testsfrequency response testsfrequency-sweep testfuel runout testfull-scale testground effect testground resonance testhandling qualities testshard-ride testheat testsheavyweight testhigh-angle-of-attack testshigh-alpha testhover testshover in-ground-effect testhover-in-ground testhovering testshumidity testsicing testimpact testin-plant testsinput-to-output testsiron bird testslanding testlanding flap testslife roll testlimit cycle testslimited-envelope flight testload-deflection testlogic testlow-observability testmaneuvering testsmanual flight testsmodal testmodal survey testmode interaction testsmodel tests of airfoilsmoire interferometry testsnoise testnondestructive testnormal takeoff testsNyquist stability testopen-loop testsoperability testoscillatory testsoverland testsoxygen testsperformance testpilot-in-loop testsplenum-chamber burning testspost-flight testpreflight testpressure testpressurization testproof-lood testproof-of-concept testsradar cross-section testradiographic testrain testramp testsrate of climb testrejected takeoff testreliability testremote-site testrepair testresidual strength testresonance testsreverse-thrust testsrig testrobustness testroll-on-rim testrolling testrotary-balance testsrough ground profile testshake testshakedown testshear testsideslip testssimulation verification testsimulator testsmall-scale testsmoke testspin testsspray ingestion teststability teststall testsstatic testsstatic strength teststeady rolling testssteady state teststealth teststiffness teststore compatibility teststrength testsstructural testssupercritical testsystem integration testtail on/off teststakeoff testtaxy testtensile testtension testtethered testtowing testtransfer function testsvalidation testsvectored thrust testvibration testvulnerability testwater-tank testwaveoff testswheel testwhirl testwind blast testwind tunnel testwing-fatigue testwingborne mode flight testyaw oscillation testszero-speed-zero-altitude testzero-zero test -
44 discharge
1. n разгрузка2. n разряд; выстрел, залп; разряжениеthe discharge of a rifle — выстрел из ружья; разряжение выстрелом
3. n эл. разрядка4. n выделение; выпускание, спуск; слив; опоражнивание5. n психиатр. разряжение; снятие напряжения6. n физиол. мед. выделение; истечение7. n физиол. мед. выделения, секрет; отделяемое8. n выполнение, исполнение, отправление9. n уплата10. n освобождение от обязанностей, увольнениеhonourable discharge — почётное увольнение на пенсию с сохранением чинов, знаков отличия
final discharge — окончательное, полное освобождение
11. n удостоверение об увольнении; рекомендация12. n выписка13. n освобождение от выполнения обязательств; освобождение от уплаты долгаdischarge in bankruptcy, order of discharge — восстановление в правах несостоятельного должника
discharge a debt — уплатить долг; погасить долг
14. n квитанция, расписка15. n юр. освобождение из заключения16. n юр. прекращение дела17. n юр. отмена решения суда18. n юр. стр. подпорка, опора; свая, столб19. n юр. гидр. расход20. n юр. тех. подача; нагнетаниеdischarge head — напор, высота нагнетания
21. n юр. производительность22. n юр. тех. выпускное отверстиеdischarge cock — выпускной, спускной или сливной кран
discharge pipe — выпускная, отводная труба
23. n текст. вытравление, вытравка24. n текст. обесцвечивающий состав25. v разгружать; выгружатьto discharge cargo — разгружать, выгружать
26. v разряжать; стрелять27. v лопаться28. v выделять, извергать; выбрасывать, выпускать; спускать, сливать; опоражнивать29. v высказывать, выкладывать30. v выполнять, исполнять, отправлять31. v выполнять долговые обязательства; платить, погашать32. v освобождать от обязанностей, увольнять; снимать с работы33. v выписывать34. v освобождать от выполнения35. v юр. освобождать из заключения36. v юр. прекращать уголовное преследование, оправдывать37. v юр. отменять, аннулировать38. v юр. гидр. нагнетать39. v юр. мор. расснащиватьСинонимический ряд:1. acquittal (noun) acquittal; exculpation; exoneration; pardon2. burst (noun) burst; detonation; explosion3. dismissal (noun) dismissal; release; termination4. emission (noun) ejection; emission; evacuation; expulsion; flow; issue; remission; removal; secretion; voiding5. fulfillment (noun) accomplishment; execution; fulfillment; fulfilment; observance; performance; satisfaction6. shooting (noun) firing; shooting7. annul (verb) abrogate; annul; dissolve; quash; vacate8. clear (verb) clear; clear off; disburse; honour; liquidate; pay; pay up; quit; redeem; satisfy; settle; square9. dismiss (verb) ax; boot out; bounce; disemploy; dismiss; drop; kick out; let out; sack; terminate; turn off10. fire (verb) blast; detonate; fire; hurtle; loose; project; propel; set off; shoot11. free (verb) acquit; disenthrall; disimprison; emancipate; exonerate; free; liberate; loosen; manumit; release; unbind; unchain; unshackle12. fulfil (verb) accomplish; execute; exercise; fulfil; fulfill; implement; meet; observe; perform; take13. get rid of (verb) disembogue; eject; emit; get rid of; give off; pour; send; teem14. let go (verb) break; cashier; expel; let go; replace15. separate (verb) demobilise; demobilize; muster out; separate16. spare (verb) absolve; dispense; excuse; exempt; let off; privilege from; relieve; spare17. unload (verb) disburden; off-load; unlade; unload; unship; unstow18. unpack (verb) empty; excrete; flow; issue; unburden; unpack; vent; voidАнтонимический ряд:accumulate; appointment; burden; conviction; employ; hire; imprison; load; neglect; negligence -
45 frequency
1) частота2) повторяемость; частота повторения; периодичность•-
absolute cumulative frequency
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absolute frequency
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acoustic frequency
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actual frequency
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adjacent frequency
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adjustment frequency
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air distress frequency
- air-ground radio frequency -
alias frequency
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allocated frequency
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alternate frequency
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angular frequency
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antiresonance frequency
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assigned frequency
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audio frequency
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authorized frequency
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base cutoff frequency
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base frequency
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basic frequency
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basic repetition frequency
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beat frequency
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bending frequency
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bias frequency
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boundary frequency
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break frequency
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broadcast frequency
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burst frequency
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calibrating frequency
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call-back frequency
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calling frequency
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carrier frequency
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catenary frequency
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center frequency
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channel frequency
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characteristic frequency
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chopping frequency
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chroma subcarrier frequency
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circular frequency
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clock frequency
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collision frequency
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color subcarrier frequency
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color-frame frequency
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color-fusion frequency
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color-picture frequency
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combination frequencys
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commercial frequency
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complex frequency
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component frequency
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corner frequency
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count frequency
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critical frequency
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crossover frequency
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crystal frequency
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culprit frequency
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cutoff frequency
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cyclic frequency
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cyclotron frequency
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damped frequency
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damped natural frequency
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damped vibration frequency
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day frequency
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dedicated frequency
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departure frequency
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difference frequency
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discharge oscillatory frequency
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dispersion frequency
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distress frequency
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dominant frequency
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Doppler-beat frequency
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Doppler frequency
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downlink frequency
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driving frequency
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en-route frequency
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erase frequency
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excitation frequency
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extinction frequency
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extremely high frequency
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extremely low frequency
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ferromagnetic-resonance frequency
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field-repetition frequency
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field frequency
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fixed frequency
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flicker frequency
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flood frequency
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flow frequency
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folding frequency
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forcing frequency
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frame-repetition frequency
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frame frequency
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free-running frequency
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free frequency
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frequency of discharges
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frequency of irrigation
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frequency of maximum admittance
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frequency of maximum impedance
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frequency of maximum transmission
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frequency of operation
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frequency of recalibration
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fundamental frequency
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fusion frequency
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gear-meshing frequency
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gliding frequency
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graded-base cutoff frequency
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harmonic frequency
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high frequency
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highest probable frequency
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horizontal frequency
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horizontal-repetition frequency
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horizontal-sweep frequency
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idler frequency
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image frequency
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impulse frequency
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infralow frequency
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infrasonic frequency
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input frequency
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instantaneous frequency
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intended frequency
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intercarrier frequency
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intermediate frequency
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ionization frequency
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jammed frequency
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jitter frequency
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jump frequency
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knee frequency
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laser radiation frequency
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limiting frequency
-
line frequency
-
line-locked frequency
-
line-scanning frequency
-
load resonance frequency
-
load resultant frequency
-
locking frequency
-
loop unity gain frequency
-
low frequency
-
lower cutoff frequency
-
lowest observed frequency
-
lowest usable frequency
-
lubrication frequency
-
main resonance frequency
-
mains frequency
-
master clock frequency
-
master frequency
-
maximum observed frequency
-
maximum usable frequency
-
microwave frequency
-
midband frequency
-
mode frequency
-
modulation frequency
-
multiple frequency
-
mutation frequency
-
natural frequency
-
notch frequency
-
note frequency
-
Nyquist frequency
-
off frequency
-
offset frequency
-
operating frequency
-
oscillating frequency
-
output frequency
-
parallel resonance frequency
-
penetration frequency
-
picture frequency
-
picture-carrier frequency
-
pilot frequency
-
plasma frequency
-
power-line frequency
-
power frequency
-
preset frequency
-
projection frequency
-
pull-in frequency
-
pull-out frequency
-
pulse-repetition frequency
-
pumping frequency
-
pump frequency
-
pushing frequency
-
quasi-resonance frequency
-
quenched frequency
-
quench frequency
-
quiescent frequency
-
radian frequency
-
radio frequency
-
ramp frequency
-
rated frequency
-
recombination frequency
-
reference frequency
-
repetition frequency
-
resonance frequency
-
resonator frequency
-
rest frequency
-
ring frequency
-
ringing frequency
-
ripple frequency
-
rotational frequency
-
rotation frequency
-
sampling frequency
-
scanning frequency
-
scan frequency
-
scanning-line frequency
-
scan-line frequency
-
secondary frequency
-
self-neutralization frequency
-
series resonance frequency
-
side frequency
-
signal frequency
-
sliding frequency
-
slip frequency
-
slot ripple frequency
-
sonic frequency
-
sound carrier frequency
-
sound frequency
-
source frequency
-
space frequency
-
specified frequency
-
spot frequency
-
standard frequency
-
steady-state frequency
-
stream frequency
-
subcarrier frequency
-
subharmonic frequency
-
subNyquist frequency
-
subsonic frequency
-
subsynchronous frequency
-
subtelephone frequency
-
superhigh frequency
-
super-Nyquist frequency
-
super-telephone frequency
-
supply frequency
-
sweep frequency
-
switching frequency
-
synchronizing frequency
-
synchronous frequency
-
system frequency
-
test frequency
-
threshold frequency
-
timing frequency
-
torsional frequency
-
transition frequency
-
troublesome resonant frequency
-
turnover frequency
-
ultrahigh frequency
-
ultralow frequency
-
ultrasonic frequency
-
unassigned frequency
-
undamped frequency
-
unused frequency
-
unwanted frequency
-
usage frequency
-
vertical frequency
-
vertical-repetition frequency
-
vertical-sweep frequency
-
very high frequency
-
very low frequency
-
vibrational frequency
-
vibration frequency
-
video frequency
-
vision frequency
-
visual frequency
-
visual-fusion frequency
-
voice frequency
-
waveguide cutoff frequency
-
window frequency
-
wobble frequency -
46 transmission
1) передача2) привод; передача3) коробка передач, коробка скоростей4) трансмиссия5) прохождение ( сигнала); распространение ( волны)6) коэффициент прохождения; коэффициент пропускания•-
ac power transmission
-
acoustic transmission
-
all-indirect transmission
-
all-synchronized transmission
-
amplitude transmission
-
analog transmission
-
asymmetric-sideband transmission
-
asynchronous transmission
-
atmospheric transmission
-
audio transmission
-
automatic picture transmission
-
automatic transmission
-
auxiliary transmission
-
batch transmission
-
beam transmission
-
belt transmission
-
bidirectional transmission
-
bipolar transmission
-
broadcast transmission
-
bulk power transmission
-
burst transmission
-
center shaft drive transmission
-
clash-gear transmission
-
closed circuit hydrostatic transmission
-
code-transparent transmission
-
constant-mesh transmission
-
continuous drive transmission
-
conventional transmission
-
countershaft transmission
-
cyclical transmission
-
data transmission
-
dc power transmission
-
diffuse transmission
-
digital transmission
-
direct on-air transmission
-
direct transmission
-
directive transmission
-
discontinuous transmission
-
distortionless transmission
-
document transmission
-
double-sideband transmission
-
duplex transmission
-
dynamic transmission
-
electric power transmission
-
electric transmission
-
electronic-controlled transmission
-
errorless transmission
-
facsimile transmission
-
feedback transmission
-
fluid power transmission
-
forced-main transmission
-
friction clutch transmission
-
friction transmission
-
friction variable transmission
-
full-duplex transmission
-
gear shift transmission
-
gear transmission
-
gravity-flow transmission
-
half-duplex transmission
-
heat transmission
-
high-baud-rate transmission
-
high-voltage dc transmission
-
horizon transmission
-
hydraulic transmission
-
hydromechanical transmission
-
hydrostatic transmission
-
image transmission
-
indirect transmission
-
infinitely variable speed transmission
-
infinitely variable transmission
-
information transmission
-
interrupted-drive transmission
-
jitter-free transmission
-
light transmission
-
live transmission
-
live-studio transmission
-
long distance power transmission
-
long distance transmission
-
long-haul transmission
-
long-range pollutants transmission
-
low-power transmission
-
manual shift transmission
-
maximum transmission
-
multibeam transmission
-
multichannel transmission
-
multilateral transmission
-
multipath transmission
-
multiplex transmission
-
multiterminal high-voltage dc transmission
-
one-way transmission
-
open-air transmission
-
optical transmission
-
over-the-horizon transmission
-
packet transmission
-
parallel transmission
-
picture transmission
-
planetary gear transmission
-
pneumatically controlled transmission
-
pneumatic controlled transmission
-
point-to-point transmission
-
power shift transmission
-
power shuttle transmission
-
power transmission
-
radio transmission
-
reduced-carrier transmission
-
remote television transmission
-
rotary shifted transmission
-
selective sliding transmission
-
self-locking transmission
-
semiautomatic transmission
-
serial transmission
-
simplex transmission
-
simulcast transmission
-
simultaneous transmission
-
single-sideband transmission
-
six-phase transmission
-
sliding gear transmission
-
solar ultraviolet transmission
-
sound transmission
-
sound-program transmission
-
split torque drive transmission
-
spread-spectrum transmission
-
start-stop transmission
-
store-and-forward transmission
-
studio transmission
-
synchronous transmission
-
thermal transmission
-
three-phase transmission
-
three-speed power shift transmission
-
torque divider transmission
-
transmission of electrical energy
-
transmission of liquids
-
transmission of load
-
two-way transmission
-
unilateral transmission
-
variable speed transmission
-
vestigial-sideband transmission
-
water transmission
-
water vapor transmission
-
wave transmission
-
Wilson transmission -
47 message
сообщение ( передаваемое средствами связи) ; телефонограмма; телеграмма; радиограмма; донесение— alerting message— immediate precedence message— multiple-address message— plain language message* * * -
48 communication(s)
1) связь, коммуникация; система связи; мн. ч. средства связи2) передача; система передачи4) взаимодействие, общение•to contact ( to establish) communication — устанавливать связь-
adaptive communication
-
air communication
-
air distress communication
-
air safety communication
-
air-to-air communication
-
air-to-ground communication
-
amateur radio communication
-
amateur communication
-
analog communication
-
antijam communication
-
asynchronous communication
-
bandlimited communication
-
base-to-mobile communication
-
batch communication
-
beam communication
-
beyond-the-horizon communication
-
buffered communication
-
cable communication
-
car-to-car communication
-
computer communication
-
conference communication
-
data communication
-
digital communications
-
digital communication
-
direct communication
-
disaster communication
-
diversity communication
-
domestic communication
-
duplex communication
-
emergency communication
-
en-route communication
-
facsimile communication
-
feedback communication
-
fiber-optics communications
-
fiber-optics communication
-
frequency-hop communication
-
full duplex communication
-
ground-to-air communication
-
guideway-transportation communication
-
half-duplex communication
-
harmonic communication
-
high-frequency communication
-
highway communication
-
host communication
-
infrared communication
-
intercomputer communication
-
interplanetary communication
-
interprocess communication
-
interprocessor communication
-
interstation communication
-
intertask communication
-
ionoscatter communication
-
jam-resistant communication
-
laser-beam communication
-
laser communication
-
light communication
-
line-of-sight communication
-
long-haul communication
-
man-computer communication
-
marine-vehicle communication
-
marine communication
-
message switched communication
-
meteor-burst communication
-
microwave communication
-
mobile communication
-
multichannel communication
-
multiple-access communication
-
one-way communication
-
optical communication
-
optical-fiber communications
-
optical-fiber communication
-
oral communication
-
packet switched communication
-
party-line communication
-
point-to-point communication
-
polling communication
-
power line communication
-
queued communication
-
radio communication
-
radio-link communication
-
railway communication
-
rail communication
-
safety communication
-
satellite communication
-
secure communication
-
shortwave communication
-
simplex communication
-
single-sideband communication
-
sky-wave communication
-
slave-master communication
-
space communication
-
speech communication
-
synchronous communication
-
task-to-task communication
-
telegraphic communication
-
telegraph communication
-
telephone communication
-
television communication
-
train-to-train radio communication
-
train-to-train communication
-
transhorizon communication
-
troposcatter communication
-
trunk communication
-
two-way alternate communication
-
two-way communication
-
underground communication
-
underwater-vehicle communication
-
visual communication
-
voice communication
-
waveguide communication
-
wire communication
-
wire-free communication
-
written communicationАнгло-русский словарь технических терминов > communication(s)
-
49 communication(s)
1) связь, коммуникация; система связи; мн. ч. средства связи2) передача; система передачи4) взаимодействие, общение•to contact ( to establish) communication — устанавливать связь-
adaptive communication
-
air communication
-
air distress communication
-
air safety communication
-
air-to-air communication
-
air-to-ground communication
-
amateur radio communication
-
amateur communication
-
analog communication
-
antijam communication
-
asynchronous communication
-
bandlimited communication
-
base-to-mobile communication
-
batch communication
-
beam communication
-
beyond-the-horizon communication
-
buffered communication
-
cable communication
-
car-to-car communication
-
computer communication
-
conference communication
-
data communication
-
digital communications
-
digital communication
-
direct communication
-
disaster communication
-
diversity communication
-
domestic communication
-
duplex communication
-
emergency communication
-
en-route communication
-
facsimile communication
-
feedback communication
-
fiber-optics communications
-
fiber-optics communication
-
frequency-hop communication
-
full duplex communication
-
ground-to-air communication
-
guideway-transportation communication
-
half-duplex communication
-
harmonic communication
-
high-frequency communication
-
highway communication
-
host communication
-
infrared communication
-
intercomputer communication
-
interplanetary communication
-
interprocess communication
-
interprocessor communication
-
interstation communication
-
intertask communication
-
ionoscatter communication
-
jam-resistant communication
-
laser-beam communication
-
laser communication
-
light communication
-
line-of-sight communication
-
long-haul communication
-
man-computer communication
-
marine-vehicle communication
-
marine communication
-
message switched communication
-
meteor-burst communication
-
microwave communication
-
mobile communication
-
multichannel communication
-
multiple-access communication
-
one-way communication
-
optical communication
-
optical-fiber communications
-
optical-fiber communication
-
oral communication
-
packet switched communication
-
party-line communication
-
point-to-point communication
-
polling communication
-
power line communication
-
queued communication
-
radio communication
-
radio-link communication
-
railway communication
-
rail communication
-
safety communication
-
satellite communication
-
secure communication
-
shortwave communication
-
simplex communication
-
single-sideband communication
-
sky-wave communication
-
slave-master communication
-
space communication
-
speech communication
-
synchronous communication
-
task-to-task communication
-
telegraphic communication
-
telegraph communication
-
telephone communication
-
television communication
-
train-to-train radio communication
-
train-to-train communication
-
transhorizon communication
-
troposcatter communication
-
trunk communication
-
two-way alternate communication
-
two-way communication
-
underground communication
-
underwater-vehicle communication
-
visual communication
-
voice communication
-
waveguide communication
-
wire communication
-
wire-free communication
-
written communicationАнгло-русский словарь технических терминов > communication(s)
-
50 communication
1) связь, система связи; средства связи2) передача•- administrative-economic communication
- advanced shipboard communication
- aerial communication
- aeronautical communications
- air steward-to-air steward telephone communication
- airborne SHF-communication
- airborne-to-Earth communication
- aircraft communication
- air-to-air communication
- air-to-air voice communication
- air-to-ground electric communication
- Airways and Air communications
- all-mine telephone communication
- analog tropospheric communication
- analog-to-digital communication
- annunciating communication
- antenna communication
- asynchronous communication
- audio-conference communication
- audio-visual communication
- auroral long-distance communication
- automatic trunk communication
- auxiliary communication
- babyphone communication
- basic communication
- bathysphere-to-carrier-ship communication
- bidirectional communication
- binary-synchronous communication
- boat emergency communications
- both-way simultaneous communication
- branch telephone communication
- broadcast communication
- carrier-current communication
- car-to-car communication
- coastal center-to-coastal center communication
- code-independent data communication
- coherent-light communication
- combine wall communication
- command-telephone communication
- common-service communication
- common-using telegraph communication
- common-using telephone communication
- component triaxial communication
- computerized communication
- computer-to-computer communication
- conductor-to-departure responsible communication
- conference communication
- confidential special radio communication
- contact network communication
- contactless HF-communication
- contingency communication
- continuous communication
- control communication
- data communication
- data-transmission communication
- departmental engineering communication
- departmental telegraph communication
- digital communication
- digital-speech communication
- direct communication
- direct-pair communication
- direct-telephone communication
- disaster communication
- dispatch communication
- display communication
- distress communication
- district-by-district communication
- diversity communication
- diver-to-diver communication
- diving-service communication
- document electric communication
- documental conference communication
- duplex communication
- duplex radiotelephone communication
- Earth-to-airborne communication
- Earth-to-satellite communication
- Earth-to-space-to-Earth communication
- either-way communication
- electrical communication
- electromagnetic communication
- electronic communication
- emergency communication
- emergency ship radio communication
- enciphered-facsimile communication
- engineering station communication
- engineering-telephone communication
- everyone-to-everyone communication
- face communication
- fast-acting telephone communication
- fire-place communication
- fixed aeronautical communication
- fixed-electric communication
- fleet communication
- frequency-hop communication
- gateway-to-gateway communication
- ground-line communication
- group engineering communication
- half-duplex communication
- harmonic communication
- H-carrier communication
- HF-communication
- high-speed mobile communication
- house-car communication
- hydroacoustic communication
- incoming communication
- inductive mines communication
- industrial communication
- industrial-automatic communication
- industrial-engineering communication
- in-plant communication
- interaction communication
- interpaging communication
- interstation communication
- interstellar communication
- intersystem communication
- intraairplane telephone communication
- intrabasin selector communication
- intrabasin telegraph communication
- intrabasin telephone communication
- intrairport communication
- intraship communication
- intratrain telephone communication
- irregular communication
- isochronous communication
- land mobile communication
- land-to-space communication
- letter-printing communication
- lighting wire communication
- line communication
- line-path communication
- line-track telephone communication
- littoral radiotelephone communication
- local common service communication
- local engineering communication
- local telephone communication
- long-haul communication
- long-haul fiber-optical communication
- long-haul telephone communication
- loud-speaking communication
- main conference communication
- main engineering communication
- main radio communication
- manoeuvre radio communication
- man-to-machine communication
- marine communication
- marine facsimile communication
- meteor-burst communication
- meteoric-ionospheric communication
- microwave communication
- militarized guard communication
- mobile aeronautical communication
- mobile communication
- moon-bounce communication
- moorage-by-moorage communication
- movable communication
- MT administration-to-road communication
- multicast communication
- multichannel communication
- multimedia communication
- multiple channel class A communication
- multiple channel class B communication
- multiple channel class C communication
- multiple channel system radio communication
- multipoint communication
- navigating-service communication
- n-way communication
- office communication
- operative communication
- operative-dispatch communication
- operative-managing communication
- operative-repairing communication
- operator-to-train mobile communication
- oral communication
- outgoing communication
- packet communication
- passband data communication
- passenger-to-locomotive driver communication
- passenger-to-policemen communication
- phase-locked communication
- phototelegraph communication
- pilot-to-steward telephone communication
- plane-to-plane communication
- platform announcing communication
- platform radio communication
- platform-to-train mobile communication
- point-to-point communication
- power dispatch communication
- power line communication
- private bypass communication
- private-branch communication
- private-branch industrial communication
- pulse communication
- radial communication
- radial-aerial USB-communication
- radio link communication
- radio relay communication
- radio searching communication
- radiotelephone communication
- railway telephone communication
- real-time communication
- recording communication
- regional communication
- regular communication
- remote reference communication
- road communication
- road engineering communication
- road managing communication
- road power dispatch communication
- road service dispatch communication
- road servicing communication
- road telegraph communication
- rural communication
- safety communication
- satellite marine communication
- satellite-to-Earth communication
- satellite-to-satellite communication
- SB communication
- secure communication
- selector communication
- service communication
- service dispatch communication
- service section communication
- SHF-wave communication
- ship coastal facsimile communication
- ship-driver-to-ship-driver communication
- ship-radio communication
- ship-telephone communication
- ship-to-ship communication
- ship-to-spacecraft communication
- ship-to-submarine communication
- shore-to-ship communication
- short-band communication
- simplex communication
- simplex single-frequency communication
- simplex stripping communication
- simplex two-frequency communication
- single-channel communication
- single-frequency radio communication
- single-hop communication
- single-side loudspeaking communication
- sky-wave communication
- slope telephone communication
- sonic communication
- space communication
- space laser communication
- spacecraft-to-subscriber communication
- space-to-space communication
- special communication
- speech communication
- static-wire communication
- station communication
- station inductive communication
- station mobile communication
- station-by-station telephone communication
- station-radio communication
- steering cab-to-captain's cab communication
- steering cab-to-power dispatchboard communication
- steering cab-to-tiller compartment communication
- submarine laser communication
- submarine sound communication
- submarine TV-communication
- submarine-to-satellite communication
- submarine-to-submarine communication
- subscriber-to-workgroup communication
- switch point communication
- synchronous communication
- telegraphic communication
- telegraphic-telephone radio communication
- telephonist-to-diver communication
- telex communication
- ticket-dispatch communication
- time-bill communication
- train dispatch communication
- train inductive communication
- train radio communication
- train radiotelephone communication
- train radiowire telephone communication
- train-interstation communication
- train-master-to-station-master assistant communication
- train-master-to-train team communication
- train-to-movable object communication
- train-to-train radio communication
- transport police communication
- tropospheric communication
- tropospheric-scutter communication
- trunk communication
- tunnel train radio communication
- twilight scutter communication
- two-frequency radio communication
- two-side loudspeaking communication
- two-way alternative communication
- two-way simultaneous communication
- ultrasonic communication
- ultraviolet communication
- underground communication
- undersea optical communication
- underwater communication
- unwired earth current communication
- USB-communication
- variable frequency sync communication
- vehicle-to-vehicle communication
- videoconference communication
- videotelephone communication
- voice communication
- wagon-to-wagon mobile communication
- wall communication
- waterside communications
- waterside USB-communication
- wave conducting communication
- wire port communication
- wire radio communication
- wire telephone communication
- workgroup-to-workgroup communication
- world-wide telephone communicationEnglish-Russian dictionary of telecommunications and their abbreviations > communication
-
51 rifle
винтовка; нарезное огневое средство; ( безоткатное) орудие; стрелять из винтовки; нарезать канал ствола; ружейный, винтовочный; стрелковый— high-powered rifle* * *• винтовка -
52 mine
мина; фугас; подкоп; минировать, подводить мину; подрывать, взрывать; минныйartillery (artillery-delivered, artilleryscatterable) mine — мина, устанавливаемая (дистанционно) с помощью артиллерийской системы
— AA mine— acoustic influence mine— aircraft-droppable mine— AP mine— AT mine— bar mine— booby-trapped mine— box mine— gas mine— hollow-charge effect mine— ice mine— magnetic impulse mine— mobile water mine— pot mine— pressure-action mine— scatterable mine— SP mine -
53 communication
= comm1) соединение; объединение; сообщение2) связь; установление связи (напр. телефонной)3) коммуникацияа) передача информации; обмен информацией; передача данных; обмен даннымиб) среда для передачи информации или для обмена информацией; среда для передачи данных или для обмена данными; канал связи; линия связив) акт межличностного общения с целью выяснения позиций сторон или достижения взаимопонимания4) передаваемая информация; передаваемые данные; сообщение5) информационная передача; сводка новостей6) содержание информационной передачи; новости8) способ связи; сообщение (напр. телеграфное)9) pl коммуникацииб) средства передачи информации или обмена информацией; средства передачи данных или обмена даннымиг) средства массовой информации, СМИ; коммуникационная сферад) системы и средства передвижения войск и материально-технического обеспечения11) информационные службы (напр. на предприятиях)12) коммуникология•- air-to-ground communication
- amateur radio communication
- analog communication
- asynchronous communication
- antijam communication
- auroral long-distance communication
- automated communication - band-limited communication
- beyond-the-horizon communication
- binary synchronous communications
- buffered communication
- business communication
- cable communication
- carrier-current communication
- CB communication
- citizen band communication
- coherent communication
- coherent-light communication
- computer communication
- computer-mediated communication
- computer-to-computer communication
- conference communication
- cross-channel communication
- cryptographic communication
- cryptographic digital communication
- data communication
- decision-feedback communication
- deep space communication - digital voice communication
- dipole-belt communication
- direct communication
- diversity communication
- downstream communication
- duplex communication
- electrical communication
- electronic communication
- emergency communication
- enciphered facsimile communication
- facsimile communication
- fiber-optics communication
- field communication
- fixed communication
- frequency-hop communication
- frequency-hopping communication - half-duplex communication
- harmonic communication - highway communication
- host communication
- image communication
- industrial communications
- infrared communication
- in-house communication
- in-house data communication
- interactive communication
- intercomputer communication
- interplanetary communication
- interprocess communication
- interprocessor communication
- intersatellite communication
- intertask communication
- ionoscatter communication
- ionospheric communication
- jam-resistant communication
- joint communication
- laser communication
- leaky-feeder communication
- light communication
- light-wave communication
- line communication
- long-distance ionospheric-scatter communication
- long-haul communication
- long-range communication
- machine-to-machine data communication
- man-computer communication
- man-machine communication
- marine communication
- marine-vehicle communication
- message switched communication
- meteor-burst communication
- microwave communication
- MIDI communication
- mobile communication
- multicast communication
- multichannel communication
- multimedia communication
- multiple-access communication
- multiplex communication
- multipoint communication
- multi-purpose communications
- office communications
- one-way communication
- operator communication - orbital-scatter radio communication
- orbiting-dipole radio communication
- over-the-horizon communication
- packet-switched communication
- party-line communication
- personal communication
- plane-to-plane communication
- point-to-multipoint communication
- point-to-point communication
- polling communication
- queued communication
- radio communication
- radio-relay communication
- repeater satellite communication
- rural communication
- safety communication
- satellite communication
- secure communication
- self-adjusting communication
- self-optimizing communication
- sensory communication
- shore-to-ship-communication
- signaling communication
- simplex communication
- single-sideband communication
- sky-wave communication
- sonar communication
- sonic communication
- space communication
- spacecraft-to-Earth communication
- speech communication
- spread spectrum communication
- SSB communication
- supersonic communication
- synchronous communication
- telegraphic communication
- telephone communication
- television communication
- transcontinental communication
- transhorizon communication
- troposcatter communication
- tropospheric-scatter communication
- trunk communication
- two-way communication
- two-way alternate communication
- ultrasonic communication
- underwater communication
- upstream communication
- voice communication
- waveguide communication
- wire-free communication - world-wide telephone communication
- written communication -
54 communication
1) соединение; объединение; сообщение2) связь; установление связи (напр. телефонной)3) коммуникацияа) передача информации; обмен информацией; передача данных; обмен даннымиб) среда для передачи информации или для обмена информацией; среда для передачи данных или для обмена данными; канал связи; линия связив) акт межличностного общения с целью выяснения позиций сторон или достижения взаимопонимания4) передаваемая информация; передаваемые данные; сообщение5) информационная передача; сводка новостей6) содержание информационной передачи; новости8) способ связи; сообщение (напр. телеграфное) pl.9) коммуникацииб) средства передачи информации или обмена информацией; средства передачи данных или обмена даннымиг) средства массовой информации, СМИ; коммуникационная сферад) системы и средства передвижения войск и материально-технического обеспечения11) информационные службы (напр. на предприятиях)12) коммуникология•- advanced program-to-program communication
- aeronautical communication
- air-to-ground communication
- amateur radio communication
- analog communication
- antijam communication
- asynchronous communication
- auroral long-distance communication
- automated communication
- automatic secure voice communication
- background communication
- band-limited communication
- beyond-the-horizon communication
- binary synchronous communications
- buffered communication
- business communication
- cable communication
- carrier-current communication
- CB communication
- citizen band communication
- coherent communication
- coherent-light communication
- computer communication
- computer-mediated communication
- computer-to-computer communication
- conference communication
- cross-channel communication
- cryptographic communication
- cryptographic digital communication
- data communication
- decision-feedback communication
- deep space communication
- digital communication
- digital speech communication
- digitized voice communication
- dipole-belt communication
- direct communication
- diversity communication
- downstream communication
- duplex communication
- electrical communication
- electronic communication
- emergency communication
- enciphered facsimile communication
- facsimile communication
- fiber-optics communication
- field communication
- fixed communication
- frequency-hop communication
- frequency-hopping communication
- global communication
- ground-to-air communication
- half-duplex communication
- harmonic communication
- high-capacity communication
- high-frequency communication
- highway communication
- host communication
- image communication
- industrial communications
- infrared communication
- in-house communication
- in-house data communication
- interactive communication
- intercomputer communication
- interplanetary communication
- interprocess communication
- interprocessor communication
- intersatellite communication
- intertask communication
- ionoscatter communication
- ionospheric communication
- jam-resistant communication
- joint communication
- laser communication
- leaky-feeder communication
- light communication
- light-wave communication
- line communication
- long-distance ionospheric-scatter communication
- long-haul communication
- long-range communication
- machine-to-machine data communication
- man-computer communication
- man-machine communication
- marine communication
- marine-vehicle communication
- message switched communication
- meteor-burst communication
- microwave communication
- MIDI communication
- mobile communication
- multicast communication
- multichannel communication
- multimedia communication
- multiple-access communication
- multiplex communication
- multipoint communication
- multi-purpose communications
- office communications
- one-way communication
- operator communication
- optical communication
- optical-fiber communication
- orbital-scatter radio communication
- orbiting-dipole radio communication
- over-the-horizon communication
- packet-switched communication
- party-line communication
- personal communication
- plane-to-plane communication
- point-to-multipoint communication
- point-to-point communication
- polling communication
- queued communication
- radio communication
- radio-relay communication
- repeater satellite communication
- rural communication
- safety communication
- satellite communication
- secure communication
- self-adjusting communication
- self-optimizing communication
- sensory communication
- shore-to-ship-communication
- signaling communication
- simplex communication
- single-sideband communication
- sky-wave communication
- sonar communication
- sonic communication
- space communication
- spacecraft-to-Earth communication
- speech communication
- spread spectrum communication
- SSB communication
- supersonic communication
- synchronous communication
- telegraphic communication
- telephone communication
- television communication
- transcontinental communication
- transhorizon communication
- troposcatter communication
- tropospheric-scatter communication
- trunk communication
- two-way alternate communication
- two-way communication
- ultrasonic communication
- underwater communication
- upstream communication
- voice communication
- waveguide communication
- wire-free communication
- wireless communication
- wireless telephone communication
- world-wide telephone communication
- written communicationThe New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > communication
-
55 mode
2) мода, вид [форма, тип\] колебаний; вид [тип\] волн5) вчт. состояние6) швейн. мода•-
ablative pit-forming mode
-
abnormal mode
-
acceleration mode
-
access mode
-
accumulation mode
-
acoustic mode
-
acquisition mode
-
active mode
-
adaptive control mode
-
addressing mode
-
air-liquefaction mode
-
alternate mode
-
anticipation mode
-
approach mode
-
assemble mode
-
astable vibration mode
-
astable mode
-
automatic mode
-
automatic opening mode
-
automatic skinning mode
-
autopilot heading mode
-
autoposition mode
-
avalanche mode
-
axial mode
-
background mode
-
backward mode
-
backward propagating mode
-
backward scattering mode
-
backward scatter mode
-
backward traveling mode
-
bare resonator mode
-
basic mode
-
batch mode
-
birefringent mode
-
block mode
-
block-multiplex mode
-
bound modes
-
broadcast mode
-
buckling mode
-
burst mode
-
calibration mode
-
capture mode
-
cavity flipping mode
-
cavity mode
-
central mode
-
character generation mode
-
character mode
-
characteristic mode
-
charge-coupling mode
-
circularly polarized mode
-
cladding mode
-
clockwise polarized mode
-
coherently locked modes
-
cold mode
-
collective modes
-
command mode
-
common failure mode
-
common mode
-
compatibility mode
-
competing modes
-
compute mode
-
confined mode
-
constant cutting speed mode
-
constant speed mode
-
contention mode
-
continuous mode
-
continuous path mode
-
continuous-wave mode
-
contour modes
-
contradirectional modes
-
control mode
-
conversational mode
-
cooling mode
-
co-orbital mode
-
coplanar mode
-
core-guided mode
-
core mode
-
counterclockwise polarized mode
-
counterrotating circularly polarized modes
-
counting mode
-
coupled modes
-
cross polarized modes
-
cubic mode
-
current mode
-
current saving mode
-
cutoff mode
-
cutting mode
-
damped mode
-
data-processing mode
-
Debye-like mode
-
Debye mode
-
deceleration mode
-
deflected mode
-
degenerated mode
-
degenerate mode
-
depletion mode
-
design mode
-
dialog mode
-
difference mode
-
differential mode
-
diffraction-limited mode
-
diffusive mode
-
discrete mode
-
dispersion modes
-
display mode
-
distributed-feedback mode
-
DNC mode
-
dominant mode
-
double-pass mode
-
drift mode
-
dual-processing mode
-
duplex mode
-
dynamic mode
-
dynamic-scattering mode
-
E mode
-
edge mode
-
edit mode
-
eigen mode
-
electromagnetic mode
-
elementary mode
-
Emn mode
-
emulation mode
-
energy dissipating mode
-
enhancement mode
-
equal-loss modes
-
equally spaced modes
-
erase mode
-
evanescent mode
-
even mode
-
excited mode
-
exciting mode
-
executive mode
-
extensional mode
-
extraordinary mode
-
Fabry-Perot mode
-
face shear modes
-
fast mode
-
faulted mode
-
fiber mode
-
filamentary mode
-
first mode
-
flexural mode
-
forced mode
-
force mode
-
foreground mode
-
foreground-background mode
-
forward mode
-
forward propagating mode
-
forward scattering mode
-
forward scatter mode
-
forward shear mode
-
forward traveling mode
-
fracture mode
-
free-running mode
-
free-space mode
-
frequency-division multiplex mode
-
frequency-shift-keying mode
-
full program mode
-
full-duplex mode
-
fundamental mode
-
gated mode
-
gate mode
-
Gaussian mode
-
generator mode
-
go-ahead mode
-
graphics mode
-
graphic mode
-
guidance mode
-
guided-wave mode
-
guided mode
-
half-duplex mode
-
heating mode
-
height-lock mode
-
higher-order mode
-
high-frequency mode
-
high-loss mode
-
high-pass mode
-
high-resolution mode
-
Hmn mode
-
horizontally polarized mode
-
idler mode
-
independent mode
-
index mode
-
injected mode
-
injection-locked mode
-
in-phase modes
-
in-plane mode
-
insert mode
-
integer mode
-
interacting modes
-
interactive mode
-
internally trapped mode
-
interpretive mode
-
interrupt mode
-
inverter mode
-
isolated mode
-
jog mode
-
kernel mode
-
keyboard mode
-
laser mode
-
lasing mode
-
lattice mode
-
launched mode
-
leaking mode
-
leaky mode
-
left-hand polarized mode
-
left polarized mode
-
length extentional mode
-
length flexural mode
-
length modes
-
length-width flexural mode
-
light mode
-
linearly polarized mode
-
load mode
-
local mode
-
locate mode
-
lock mode
-
long coherence length mode
-
long wavelength mode
-
longitudinal mode
-
loopback mode
-
low-frequency mode
-
low-pass mode
-
low-resolution mode
-
lugdown mode
-
macro-by-macro mode
-
magnetron mode
-
main mode
-
malfunction mode
-
manual mode
-
manual skinning mode
-
mapping mode
-
maser mode
-
master mode
-
matched mode
-
measurement mode
-
message mode
-
mirror image mode
-
mixed mode
-
mode of behavior
-
mode of deformation
-
mode of excitation
-
mode of failure
-
mode of functioning
-
mode of propagation
-
mode of test
-
mode of transport
-
mode-locked mode
-
mode-match mode
-
monopulse mode
-
move mode
-
multiple-frame mode
-
multiplexed mode
-
multiplex mode
-
multitask mode
-
native mode
-
natural mode
-
nonaxial mode
-
noncounting mode
-
nondegenerate mode
-
nondegenerative mode
-
nonoscillating mode
-
nonpropagating mode
-
nonradiative mode
-
nonresonant mode
-
nonspiking mode
-
nontransparent mode
-
normal mode
-
odd mode
-
off mode
-
off-axis mode
-
off-design mode
-
off-line mode
-
off-normal mode
-
on-line mode
-
on-link mode
-
opening fracture mode
-
opening mode
-
operating mode
-
optical mode
-
ordinary mode
-
original mode
-
orthogonally polarized modes
-
oscillating mode
-
oscillation mode
-
oscillatory mode
-
out-of-plane mode
-
overtype mode
-
parallel mode
-
parametric mode
-
parasitic mode
-
partially suppressed mode
-
path following mode
-
path modifying mode
-
penetration mode
-
periodic mode
-
perturbed mode
-
photographing mode
-
photon-counting mode
-
pipelined mode
-
plane mode
-
plane polarized mode
-
plasma mode
-
plasma-guide mode
-
playback mode
-
point-to-point path mode
-
polarization mode
-
polarization-bistable mode
-
polarized mode
-
posttrigger mode
-
power-down mode
-
p-polarized mode
-
pretrigger mode
-
principal mode
-
priviledged mode
-
propagating mode
-
propagation mode
-
pulse counting mode
-
pulsed mode
-
pump mode
-
push-pull mode
-
Q-spoiled mode
-
Q-switched mode
-
quadrupole mode
-
quantum noise limited mode
-
radial mode
-
radially polarized mode
-
radiating mode
-
radiation mode
-
rail mode
-
ranging mode
-
ready mode
-
real-time mode
-
receive mode
-
record mode
-
rectifier mode
-
reflected mode
-
reflection mode
-
reflective mode
-
refracted mode
-
refrigeration mode
-
repetitive Q-switched mode
-
request mode
-
resonant mode
-
resonator mode
-
retropropulsion mode
-
return beam mode
-
reverse bias mode
-
reversible recording mode
-
right-hand polarized mode
-
right polarized mode
-
run mode
-
sample-and-hold mode
-
satellite mode
-
saturation mode
-
scanning mode
-
scan mode
-
scope mode
-
screen mode
-
search mode
-
selected mode
-
selector mode
-
self-ammoniation mode
-
self-heating mode
-
self-locked mode
-
self-Q-switched mode
-
self-refresh mode
-
self-reporting mode
-
self-trapping mode
-
serial mode
-
series mode
-
setup mode
-
severe wear mode
-
shear mode of crack initiation
-
shear mode
-
side mode
-
signal mode
-
simplex mode
-
simulation mode
-
single block mode
-
single mode
-
single Q-switched mode
-
single-channel mode
-
single-character mode
-
single-pulse mode
-
single-step mode
-
slave mode
-
slightly coupled modes
-
spatial mode
-
spectral mode
-
spiking mode
-
split-screen mode
-
s-polarized mode
-
spurious mode
-
spurious pulse mode
-
square mode
-
stable mode
-
standby mode
-
standing-wave mode
-
start-stop mode
-
static mode
-
stationary mode
-
steady state mode
-
stiffened mode
-
still-frame mode
-
storage mode
-
store-and-forward mode
-
stretching mode
-
stripped cladding modes
-
strong mode
-
strongly excited mode
-
substrate mode
-
superradiant mode
-
supervisor mode
-
switching mode
-
symmetric modes
-
synchronously pumped mode
-
tape auto mode
-
teaching mode
-
tearing mode
-
thickness-extensional modes
-
time compression mode
-
time mode
-
time-difference mode
-
time-shared mode
-
torsional modes
-
track-and-hold mode
-
tracking mode
-
transcribe mode
-
transfer mode
-
transformed mode
-
transient mode
-
transit mode
-
transit-time mode
-
transmission mode
-
transparent mode
-
transverse mode
-
TRAPATT mode
-
trapped mode
-
trapped plasma avalanche transit time mode
-
traveling-wave mode
-
triggering mode
-
trimming mode
-
truncated mode
-
tuning mode
-
tunneling mode
-
twist mode
-
two-level mode
-
unattended mode
-
uncoupled modes
-
undamped mode
-
unmanned mode
-
unperturbed mode
-
unstable mode
-
unstiffened mode
-
vertically polarized mode
-
vibration mode
-
vibration-free mode
-
virtual mode
-
voting mode
-
waiting mode
-
walk-off mode
-
warped mode
-
wave mode
-
wavefront watched modes
-
waveguide mode
-
wavy slip mode
-
wear mode
-
whispering modes
-
whistler mode
-
width modes
-
write mode
-
zero-order mode -
56 cell
1) клетка2) ячейка3) камера•- educated cell
- passenger cells
- absorbing cell
- accessory cell
- accessory pigment cell
- acidophil cell
- acinar cell
- acoustic hair cell
- adipose cell
- adventitional cell
- air cell
- allergized cell
- allogenerated cell
- allogenerated killer cell
- allogenic cell
- alpha cell
- amoebocytic cell
- amoeboid cell
- anaphylactic target cell
- antheridial cell
- antibody-armed cell
- antibody-coated cell
- antibody-containing cell
- antibody-forming cell
- antibody-generating cell
- antibody-producing cell
- antigen-educated cell
- antigen-experienced cell
- antigen-exposed cell
- antigen-presenting cell
- antigen-responsive cell
- antigen-sensitive cell
- antigen-specific cell
- apical cell
- archesporial cell
- argyrophil cell
- attacker cell
- atypical cardiac muscle cell
- autoaggressive cell
- autoimmune helper cell
- autologous responding cell
- auxiliary cell
- bacterial cell
- Baer's cell
- basal anal cell
- basal cell
- basket cell
- basophil cell
- bee's cells
- beta cell
- Betz cell
- binucleate cell
- bipolar cell
- B-lineage cell
- blood cell
- body cell
- bone cell
- boosted memory cell
- bottle cell
- bristle cell
- broad cell
- brown fat cell
- burst-forming cell
- bystander tumor cell
- caliciform cell
- cameloid cell
- canal cell
- cancer cell
- cancerous cell
- carrier-primed cell
- carrier-specific T helper cell
- cartilaginous cell
- cell of Bergmann's fiber
- cell of Fanana
- centroacinar cell
- chalice cell
- chlorophyll-containing cell
- chromaffin cell
- chromatophore cell
- ciliated cell
- Claudius' cell
- cleavage cell
- clonogenic cell
- closed cell
- clumped cells
- cluster-forming cells
- collagen-producing cell
- collar cell
- collared flagellate cell
- columnar cell
- committed cell
- common lymphoid stem cell
- common myeloid stem cell
- companion cell
- ConA-induced suppressor cell
- cone cell
- contrasuppressor T cell
- Coombs' positive red cell
- Corti's cell
- counting cell
- couple cell
- covering cell
- Craig-type dialysis cell
- CSF-producing cell
- cuboidal cell
- culture-origin cell
- cycling cell
- cytocidal cell
- cytotoxic cell
- cytotoxic T cell
- daughter cell
- decidual cell
- Deiters' cell
- delayer-type T cell
- demilune cells
- dentinal cell
- discal cell
- distal retinula cell
- dividing cell
- dormant cell
- drone cell
- durative cell
- dust cells
- EAC-rosetting cell
- EA-rosetting cell
- effector cell
- egg cell
- elementary cell
- embryo cell
- embryonic cell
- enamel cell
- end cell
- enterochromaffin cell
- eosinophil cell
- ependymal cell
- epidermal cell
- epithelial cell
- epithelial glial cell
- E-rosetting cell
- ethmoidal air cells
- excitatory cell
- exocrine cell
- F- cell
- F+ cell
- fat cell
- fatty cell
- feeder cell
- flame cell
- flask cell
- floor cell
- flow cell
- flow-through cell
- fluorescence-bright cell
- fluorescence-dull cell
- follicular cell
- foot cell
- formative cell
- founder cell
- free cell
- Freund's cells
- ganglionic nerve cell
- generative cell
- genetical storage cells
- germ cell
- germinal cell
- Gey's HeLa epithelial cells
- giant cell
- gland cell
- glandular cell
- glass-adherent cell
- glass-nonadherent cell
- glia cell
- glial Golgi cell
- glomerulosa cells
- GNA cell
- goblet cell
- Golgi cell
- Gram-negative cell
- Gram-positive cell
- granule cell
- granulobasal cell
- guard cell
- hair cell
- hapten-binding cell
- hapten-primed cell
- haptenylated cell
- HeLa cells
- helper cell
- hemic cell
- hemolysin-coated cell
- hemopoietic cell
- Hensen's cell
- hepatic cell
- Hersch's cell
- high-producer cell
- histoincompatible cells
- horizontal cell
- horizontal spindle-shaped nerve cell
- horn cell
- Hortega cell
- host cell
- hybrid cell
- hybridoma cell
- hydropot cell
- Ig-secreting cell
- ill-defined cell
- immature cell
- immobilized cells
- immune cell
- immunocompetent cell
- immunoglobulin-producing cell
- immunologically committed lymphoid cell
- immunoregulatory cell
- inclusion-bearing cell
- initial cell
- inner hair cell
- interstitial cell
- interstitial glandular cell of testis
- intestinal acidophil cell
- iris cell
- iris pigment cell
- irritation cell
- islet cell
- isotype-uncommitted B cell
- juvenile B cell
- juvenile cell
- K-cell
- killer cell
- Kupffer cell
- Langhans cell
- large-field cell
- lasso cell
- Leydig's cell
- liber cells
- light-producing cell
- lip cell
- living cell
- lutein cell
- lymph cell
- major mastoid air cell
- male cell
- malignant cell
- mantle cell
- Marchand's cell
- marginal cell
- marrow cell
- mast cell
- mastoid air cell
- mastoid cell
- mature cell
- mechanical cell
- memory cell
- meristematic cell
- mesenchyme cell
- migratory cell
- mini cell
- mitral cell
- mixed-lineage cells
- mobile cell
- modified self cell
- mononuclear cell
- mossy cell
- mother cell
- multinucleate cell
- myeloid cell
- myeloma cell
- naked cell
- natural cytotoxic cell
- natural killer cell
- natural suppressor cell
- NC cell
- nerve cell
- nerve multipolar cell
- nettling cell
- neurosecretory cell
- NK cell
- NK-sensitive cell
- noncorrectly fused cells
- noncycling cell
- nonproliferating cell
- nonspiking cell
- NS cell
- nurse cell
- nutritive cell
- oil cell
- olfactory cell
- open cell
- osseous cell
- osteogenetic cell
- outer limiting cell
- outer phalangeal cell
- outer supporting cell
- pairing cell
- palisade cell
- Paneth cell
- parenchymatous cell
- parent cell
- parietal cell
- passage cell
- pavement cell
- pericapillary cell
- pheochrome cell
- photogenic cell
- photoreceptor cell
- pigment cell
- pillar cell
- pituitary cell
- plankton counting cell
- plant cell
- plaque-forming cell
- plasma cell
- pluripotential cell
- pole cell
- postfusional cell
- postmitotic mature cell
- pre-B cell
- precommitted cell
- prekiller cell
- premitotic cell
- presenter cell
- prickle cell
- primed lymphoid cell
- primed responder cell
- primitive blood cell
- primitive sperm cell
- primordial germ cell
- progenitor cell
- promotor cell
- prop cell
- prothallial cell
- Purkinje's cell
- pus cell
- pyramidal cell
- queen cell
- quiescent cell
- radiate glial cell
- red blood cell
- repopulating cell
- reserve cell
- responder cell
- resting cell
- restricted stem cell
- reticuloendothelial cell
- Rieder cell
- rod cell
- rod nuclear cell
- rosette-forming cells
- Rouget cell
- royal cell
- satellite glial cell
- scavenger cell
- Schultze's cell
- Schwann's cell
- secondary B cell
- secretory cell
- segmentated cell
- segmentation cell
- self cell
- self-reactive cell
- self-restricted cell
- self-specific cell
- sense cell
- sensitized cell
- sensory cell
- Sertoli's cell
- sessile phagocytic cell
- sex cell
- sexual cell
- shadow cell
- sheath cell
- sickle cell
- sieve cell
- sister cells
- skein cell
- small cell of Ramon-y-Cajal
- somatic cell
- sperm cell
- spermatogenous cell
- spider cell
- spiking cell
- spinal ganglion cell
- spindle cell
- spiny epithelial cell
- sporogenous cell
- spot-forming cell
- squamous cell
- squamous epithelial cell
- stab cell
- staff cell
- stalk cell
- star cell
- starlike cell
- stellate cell
- stellate endothelial cell
- stellate nerve cell
- stem cell
- stimulator cell
- stinging cell
- stone cell
- stromal cell
- substituting cell
- supporting cell
- supporting glial cell of fiber
- suppressor cell
- suppressor-enriched T cells
- swarm cell
- switch T cell
- sympathicotropic cell
- sympathochromaffin cell
- T suppressor-cytotoxic cell
- tactile cell
- tapetal cell
- target binding cell
- target cell
- taste cell
- terminal cell
- testicular follicular cell
- thymus-repopulating cell
- T-lineage cell
- totipotent cell
- touch cell
- T-proliferative cell
- tracheidal cell
- triggered cell
- trophochrome cell
- tumor cell
- Türk irritation cell
- uncommitted cell
- undifferentiated cell
- unprimed cell
- vasoformative cell
- vegetative cell
- veiled cell
- veto cell
- virgin B cell
- visual cell
- wandering cell
- wandering resting cell
- whip cell
- white blood cell
- white branched epidermal cell
- white cell
- yeast cell
- yolk cell
- zymogenic cell -
57 communication
1) связь
2) шлемофонный
3) <commun.> связевый
4) коммуникация
5) сообщение
6) коммуникационный
– aeronautical communication
– air-to-ground communication
– center-to-point communication
– communication band
– communication cable
– communication channel
– communication circuit
– communication division
– communication engineering
– communication facilities
– communication facility
– communication helmet
– communication installation
– communication laser
– communication line
– communication network
– communication range
– communication receiver
– communication satellite
– communication session
– communication technician
– communication theory
– data communication
– digital communication
– emergency communication
– emergency-service communication
– establish communication
– establishment of communication
– fiber-optics communication
– global communication
– high-frequency communication
– integrated communication
– intersystem communication
– laser communication
– long-distance communication
– microwave communication
– multichannel communication
– noisy communication
– one-way communication
– packet communication
– point-to-center communication
– point-to-point communication
– private communication
– radio communication
– radio-relay communication
– space communication
– telephone communication
– two-way communication
– vehicular communication
– VHF UHF communication
– voice communication
fiber-optic communication link — волоконнооптическая линия связи
fiber-optics communication line — <commun.> линия связи волоконно-оптическая
fiber-optics communication system — <commun.> система связи волоконно-оптическая
meteor-burst communication system — <commun.> система связи метеорная
multichannel radio communication — многоканальная радиосвязь
multiprotocol communication controler — многопротокольный связной контроллер
remote communication multiplexor — удаленный мультиплексор передачи данных
repeater communication satellite — ретрансляционный связной спутник
ship-to-ship radio communication — радиосвязь между кораблями
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58 kick
1. noun1) [Fuß]tritt, der; (Footb.) Schuss, dergive somebody a kick in the pants — (fig. coll.) jemandem Feuer unterm Hintern machen (salopp)
a kick in the teeth — (fig.) ein Schlag ins Gesicht
he gets a kick out of it — er hat Spaß daran; es macht ihm Spaß
4) (recoil of gun) Rückstoß, der2. intransitive verb1) treten; [Pferd:] ausschlagen; [Baby:] strampeln; [Tänzer:] das Bein hochwerfen2) (show opposition) sich zur Wehr setzen (at, against gegen)3. transitive verb1) einen Tritt geben (+ Dat.) [Person, Hund]; treten gegen [Gegenstand]; kicken (ugs.), schlagen, schießen [Ball]kick the door open/shut — die Tür auf-/zutreten
he kicked the ball straight at me — er kickte den Ball genau in meine Richtung
kick somebody in the teeth — (fig. coll.) jemanden vor den Kopf stoßen
I could kick myself! — (coll.) ich könnte mir od. mich in den Hintern beißen (salopp)
2) (coll.): (abandon) ablegen [schlechte Angewohnheit]; aufgeben [Rauchen]kick the habit — es aufstecken (ugs.)
Phrasal Verbs:- academic.ru/40689/kick_about">kick about- kick in- kick off- kick out- kick up* * *[kik] 1. verb1) (to hit or strike out with the foot: The child kicked his brother; He kicked the ball into the next garden; He kicked at the locked door; He kicked open the gate.) treten2) ((of a gun) to jerk or spring back violently when fired.) zurückstoßen2. noun1) (a blow with the foot: The boy gave him a kick on the ankle; He was injured by a kick from a horse.) der Tritt2) (the springing back of a gun after it has been fired.) der Rückstoß3) (a pleasant thrill: She gets a kick out of making people happy.) mächtiger Spaß•- kick about/around- kick off
- kick up* * *[kɪk]I. nthat horse has quite a \kick when nervous dieses Pferd kann ganz schön ausschlagen, wenn es nervös istto need a \kick up the arse [or backside] [or pants] einen [kräftigen] Tritt in den Hintern nötig haben famto take a \kick at a ball einen Ball treten [o fam kicken]to give sth a \kick gegen etw akk tretento take a \kick at sb/sth jdm/etw einen [Fuß]tritt versetzento do sth for \kicks etw wegen des Nervenkitzels tunhe gets a \kick out of that das macht ihm einen Riesenspaßto have a \kick eine berauschende Wirkung habenwatch out for the fruit punch, it's got a real \kick sei mit dem Früchtepunsch vorsichtig, der hat es in sichthe cocktail doesn't have much \kick der Cocktail ist nicht sehr starkhealth food/fitness \kick Reformkost-/Fitnesstick mhe's on a religious \kick er ist [gerade] auf dem religiösen Trip fam4. (complaint)II. vt▪ to \kick sb/sth jdn/etw [mit dem Fuß] tretento \kick a ball einen Ball schießen [o fam kicken]2. (put)to \kick sth into high gear etw auf Hochtouren bringen3. (get rid of)to \kick an accent einen Akzent ablegento \kick drinking/smoking das Trinken/Rauchen aufgebento \kick drugs von Drogen runterkommen famto \kick a habit eine Gewohnheit aufgebenshe used to be a heavy smoker but she \kicked the habit last year sie war eine starke Raucherin, aber letztes Jahr hat sie damit aufgehört4.▶ to \kick ass AM (fam!) haushoch gewinnen▶ to \kick sth into touch etw auf einen späteren Zeitpunkt verschiebenIII. vi▪ to \kick at sb/sth nach jdm/etw treten3.traditional jazz is still alive and \kicking der klassische Jazz ist immer noch quicklebendig* * *[kɪk]1. nto take a kick at sb/sth — nach jdm/etw treten
to give sth a kick — einer Sache (dat) einen Tritt versetzen
he gave the ball a tremendous kick —
to get a kick on the leg — einen Tritt ans Bein bekommen, gegen das or ans Bein getreten werden
what he needs is a good kick up the backside or in the pants (inf) — er braucht mal einen kräftigen Tritt in den Hintern (inf)
2) (inf= thrill)
she gets a kick out of it — es macht ihr einen Riesenspaß (inf); (physically) sie verspürt einen Kitzel dabeito do sth for kicks — etw zum Spaß or Jux (inf) or Fez (inf) tun
just for kicks — nur aus Jux und Tollerei (inf)
4) (of gun) Rückstoß m2. vi(person) treten; (= struggle) um sich treten; (baby, while sleeping) strampeln; (animal) austreten, ausschlagen; (dancer) das Bein hochwerfen; (gun) zurückstoßen or -schlagen, Rückstoß haben; (inf engine) stottern (inf)3. vt1) (person, horse) sb treten, einen Tritt versetzen (+dat); door treten gegen; football kicken (inf); object einen Tritt versetzen (+dat), mit dem Fuß stoßento kick sb in the head/stomach — jdm gegen den Kopf/in den Bauch treten
to kick the bucket (inf) — abkratzen (inf), ins Gras beißen (inf)
I could have kicked myself (inf) — ich hätte mich ohrfeigen können, ich hätte mir in den Hintern beißen können (inf)
2) (inf= stop)
to kick heroin — vom Heroin runterkommen (inf)to kick the habit — es sich (dat) abgewöhnen
* * *kick [kık]A s1. (Fuß)Tritt m (auch fig), Stoß m (mit dem Fuß):get more kicks than halfpence mehr Prügel als Lob ernten;5. Stoß m, Ruck m6. a) Rückstoß m (einer Schusswaffe)7. ELEK USa) (Strom)Stoß m, Impuls mb) Ausschlag m (eines Zeigers etc)8. Stoßkraft f9. umgthat cocktail has got a kick in it der Cocktail hat es (aber) in sich umgb) US Schwips m:he’s got a kick er hat einen sitzen umg10. umg Schwung m, Elan m:he has no kick left er hat keinen Schwung mehr;a novel with a kick ein Roman mit Pfiff11. umga) Kick m, (Nerven)Kitzel m, prickelndes Gefühlb) Spaß m, Vergnügen n:for kicks zum Spaß;he just lives for kicks er lebt nur zu seinem Vergnügen;get a kick out of doing sth sich einen Spaß daraus machen, etwas zu tun;driving a car gives him a kick, he gets a kick out of driving a car das Autofahren macht ihm einen Riesenspaß oder verschafft ihm einen Kick12. umga) Abneigung f:have a kick against sth gegen etwas seinc) oft pl Grund m zur Beschwerde:she’s on a health-food kick at the moment zurzeit hat sie es mit Biokost14. US umga) Tasche fb) Geldbeutel m:he was without a dime in his kick er hatte keinen Pfennig in der TascheB v/tkick open eine Tür etc auftreten;kick sb’s shin, kick sb on the shin jemanden gegen das Schienbein treten;kick sb downstairs jemanden die Treppe hinunterstoßen;I could have kicked myself ich hätte mich ohrfeigen oder mir in den Hintern beißen können ( for telling him dass oder weil ich es ihm gesagt hatte);kick sb off the park (Fußball) Br umg jemanden zusammentreten; → arse A 1, ass2, bucket A 1, heel1 Bes Redew, tooth A 13. umg von einer Droge, Gewohnheit etc loskommenC v/i1. a) (mit dem Fuß) stoßen, treten ( beide:b) um sich tretenc) strampelnd) das Bein hochwerfene) ausschlagen (Pferd etc): → trace2 12. hochspringen, -prallen (Ball)4. AUTO umg schalten:he kicked into second er schaltete in den zweiten Gang6. umga) meutern (against, at gegen)* * *1. noun1) [Fuß]tritt, der; (Footb.) Schuss, dergive somebody a kick — jemandem einen Tritt geben od. versetzen
give somebody a kick in the pants — (fig. coll.) jemandem Feuer unterm Hintern machen (salopp)
a kick in the teeth — (fig.) ein Schlag ins Gesicht
he gets a kick out of it — er hat Spaß daran; es macht ihm Spaß
4) (recoil of gun) Rückstoß, der2. intransitive verb1) treten; [Pferd:] ausschlagen; [Baby:] strampeln; [Tänzer:] das Bein hochwerfen2) (show opposition) sich zur Wehr setzen (at, against gegen)3. transitive verb1) einen Tritt geben (+ Dat.) [Person, Hund]; treten gegen [Gegenstand]; kicken (ugs.), schlagen, schießen [Ball]kick the door open/shut — die Tür auf-/zutreten
kick somebody in the teeth — (fig. coll.) jemanden vor den Kopf stoßen
I could kick myself! — (coll.) ich könnte mir od. mich in den Hintern beißen (salopp)
2) (coll.): (abandon) ablegen [schlechte Angewohnheit]; aufgeben [Rauchen]kick the habit — es aufstecken (ugs.)
Phrasal Verbs:- kick in- kick off- kick out- kick up* * *n.Fußtritt -e m.Stoß ¨-e m. (horse) v.ausschlagen (Pferd) v. v.einen Fußtritt geben ausdr.treten v.(§ p.,pp.: trat, ist/hat getreten) -
59 communication
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60 test
1. испытание, тест2. проверка, оценка4. проба5. испытывать, проверять (see also testing)6. пробоватьabrasion test — 1) испытание на истирание [абразивный износ] 2) испытание царапанием
abrasive hardness test — 1) склерометрическое испытание на твёрдость 2) склерометрическое определение твёрдости
abruption test — испытание на разрыв
absorption test — испытание на поглощение, определение влагостойкости
accelerated test — 1) ускоренное [сокращённое] испытание 2) экспресс-анализ
acceleration test — испытание на воздействие ускорений
acid-proof test — испытание на кислотостойкость
adhesion test — испытание на адгезию [прочность сцепления], испытание прочности склейки
adhesive test — испытание прочности склейки, испытание на адгезию [прочность сцепления]
adiabatic-compression sensitivity test — испытание на чувствительность ( ракетного топлива) к адиабатическому сжатию
aging test — испытание на старение
air test — 1) испытание в воздушной среде 2) испытание на герметичность 3) испытание сжатым воздухом
alkali-proof test — испытание на щёлочестойкость
alternate-stress test — испытание ( на усталость) знакопеременной нагрузкой
alternating-bending test — испытание на знакопеременный изгиб
antiseptic test — испытание на антисептичность
artificial aging test — испытание на искусственное [ускоренное] старение
atmospheric stress corrosion test — испытание на коррозию под напряжением в атмосферных условиях
attrition test — испытание на износ
ball hardness test — испытание твёрдости вдавливанием шарика, определение твёрдости по Бринелю
indentation pressure test — определение твёрдости по Бринелю, испытание твёрдости вдавливанием шарика
bearing test — испытание на смятие [опорную прочность]
bending test — испытание на изгиб
bend-over test — испытание на изгиб
biaxial tension test — испытание на двухосное растяжение
bird impact test — испытание на пробой тушками птиц
blow test — 1) испытание на удар 2) испытание на ударную прочность
bond test — испытание на сцепление
bonding peel test — испытание на отслаивание склейки
breaking test — 1) испытание на разрушение, испытание на разрыв 2) испытание на излом
breakdown test — 1) испытание на разрушение, испытание на разрыв 2) испытание на излом
Brinell-hardness test — определение твёрдости по Бринелю
brittleness test — испытание на ломкость [хрупкость]
buckling test — испытание на продольный изгиб
bulk dilution test — испытание па всестороннее сжатие
bump test — 1) ударное испытание 2) испытание на ударную прочность
burning test — испытание на горение [горючесть]
burn-off test — испытание выжиганием ( для определения состава связующего)
bursting test — испытание с разрушением образца
cavitation test — испытание на кавитацию
Charpy impact test — испытание на удар по Шарпи, определение ударной вязкости по Шарпи
Charpy V-notch test — определение ударной вязкости образца с V-образным надрезом по Шарпи
charring ablator test — испытание обугливающегося [коксующегося] абляционного материала
chemical test — 1) химическое испытание 2) химический анализ
cleavage test — испытание на расщепление
climatic test — климатическое испытание, испытание на воздействие климатических условий
cold temperature test — испытание на морозостойкость, испытание при низких температурах
combustibility test — испытание на воспламенение [горючесть]
compatibility test — испытание на совместимость
complete destructive test — полное разрушающее испытание
composite test — испытание композиционного материала
compression test — испытание на сжатие
constant load test — испытание при постоянной нагрузке
corrosion test — испытание коррозионностойкости, коррозионное испытание
corrosion fatigue test — испытание на коррозионную усталость
corrosive wear test — испытание на окислительный износ
cracking test — коррозионное испытание на растрескивание
crack-propagation test — испытание на распространение трещин
crash test — испытание на разрушение
creep test — 1) испытание на ползучесть 2) испытание на текучесть
creep-rupture test — испытание на длительную прочность
cripling test — 1) испытание на продольный изгиб 2) испытание на перегиб
critical collapse test — испытание на устойчивость
cross-bending test — испытание на поперечный изгиб
crushing test — 1) испытание на раздавливание 2) испытание на раздробление
cryogenic temperature test — испытание при криогенных [низких] температурах
cupping test — испытание на вытяжку
curing test — испытание на вулканизацию
cycle test — циклическое испытание
cyclic test — циклическое испытание
cycle humidity test — циклическое испытание во влажной среде
cyclic-oxidation test — испытание на циклическое окисление
damping test — 1) испытание демпфирующих свойств 2) испытание на циклическую вязкость
deep-drawing test — испытание на глубокую вытяжку
deflection test — испытание на изгиб [прогиб]
deformation test — испытание на деформацию
delamination test — испытание на отслаивание
destruction test — испытание с разрушением ( образца)
destructive test — испытание с разрушением ( образца)
diamond-pyramide hardness test — определение твёрдости вдавливанием алмазной пирамиды ( по Виккерсу)
dielectric test — испытание диэлектрика [диэлектрических свойств]
direct compression test — испытание на двустороннее сжатие
drifting test — испытание на пробиваемость
drop-weight test — 1) испытание на удар падающим грузом 2) ударное испытание 3) определение ударной вязкости 4) копровое испытание
drop-weight tear test — ударное испытание на разрыв
dry strand test — испытание сухой пряди
ductile test — 1) испытание на вязкость 2) определение ударной вязкости
durability test — испытание на выносливость [долговечность]
dye-penetrant test — испытание методом красок, контроль проникающими красками
dynamic corrosion test — динамическое испытание на коррозию
elasticity test — испытание на упругость [эластичность]
electrolytic corrosion test — 1) испытание на электрохимическую коррозию 2) испытание электролита на коррозию
elevated-temperature test — испытание при повышенных температурах
elongation test — испытание на удлинение [растяжение]
endurance test — 1) испытание на выносливость [усталость] 2) испытание на прочность [стойкость] (например, лака или краски)
endurance tension test — испытание на выносливость при растяжении
endurance torsion test — испытание на выносливость при кручении
environmental test — испытание на воздействие окружающей среды
erosion test — испытание на эрозию
etching test — 1) испытание травлением 2) проба ( металла) травлением
explosive loading test — испытание взрывом, взрывное испытание
external hydrostatic test — испытание на внешнее гидростатическое давление
external pressure test — испытание на внешнее давление
falling ball test — испытание на упругость методом падающего шарика
falling sphere test — испытание на упругость методом падающего шарика
fatigue test — испытание на усталость [выносливость]
final test — испытание до разрушения
fire test — 1) испытание на огнестойкость 2) определение температуры воспламенения 3) огневое испытание ( двигателя)
fire-resistance test — испытание на огнестойкость
flammability test — испытание на воспламеняемость
flash test — определение температуры вспышки, испытание на воспламенение
flat-bending test — испытание на плоский изгиб
flattening test — испытание на сплющивание
flexural impact test — ударное испытание на изгиб
flexure test — испытание на изгиб
fluorescent test — флуоресцентный [люминесцентный] контроль
forging test — испытание на ковкость
fracture test — испытание на излом [разрушение]
freezing test — испытание на замораживание [морозостойкость]
friability test — испытание на хрупкость [ломкость]
friction test — испытание на трение
fuel-resistance test — испытание на топливостойкость
fungus test — испытание на грибостойкость
gamma-ray test — просвечивание гамма-лучами, гаммаграфический контроль
gas impermeability test — испытание на газонепроницаемость
gasoline-resistance test — испытание на бензиностойкость
gas permeability test — испытание на газопроницаемость
hammering test — испытание на ковкость
hanging test — испытание на разрыв подвешиванием грузов к образцу
hardenability test — проба на прокаливаемость
hardness test — испытание на твёрдость, определение твёрдости
heat test — испытание нагревом [на нагрев]
heat-resistance test — испытание на теплостойкость
heat-stability test — испытание на термическую устойчивость
high-pressure test — испытание при высоких давлениях
high-temperature test — 1) испытание на жаростойкость 2) испытание при высоких температурах
high-voltage test — испытание на выносливость высокого напряжения (например, изоляции)
horizontal shear test — испытание на сдвиг [срез] вдоль слоёв
hot test — 1) испытание в горячем состоянии, горячая проба 2) испытание на нагрев
humidity test — испытание во влажной среде
hydraulic pressure test — гидравлическое испытание
hydraulic tension ring test — гидравлическое испытание колец на растяжение
hydrostatic test — гидростатическое испытание
hysteresis test — испытание на гистерезис
immersion test — 1) испытание погружением образца 2) иммерсионный контроль
impact test — 1) испьггание на ударные нагрузки 2) испытание на удар 3) ударное испытание 4) определение ударной вязкости
indentation test — испытание на твёрдость вдавливанием (например, шарика или пирамиды)
insulation test — 1) испытание на изоляцию 2) испытание изоляции
interlaminar shear test — испытание на межслойный сдвиг
interlaminar tensile test — испытание на межслойное растяжение
internal hydrostatic pressure test — испытание на внутреннее гидростатическое давление
Knoop hardness test — испытание на микротвёрдость по Кнупу, определение микротвёрдости по Кнупу
life test — испытание на долговечность
light aging test — испытание на световое старение
light resistance test — испытание на светостойкость
loading test — статическое испытание, испытание нагружением
long-duration test — длительное испытание
long-time creep test — испытание на длительную прочность
low-temperature test — испытание при низких [криогенных] температурах, испытание на морозостойкость
magnetic test — магнитный контроль [дефектоскопия]
magnetic fluid test — магнитный контроль методом суспензии
magnetic particle test — контроль магнитными частицами
magnetic permeability test — испытание на магнитную проницаемость
magnetic perturbation test — контроль методом магнитного возмущения
magnetic powder test — магнитный контроль методом порошков, дефектоскопия магнитным порошком
mechanical test — испытание механических свойств, механические испытания
metallographic test — металлографическое исследование
meteorite-strike test — испытание на пробой [удар] метеоритами
micrograph test — металлографическое исследование
microhardness test — испытание на микротвёрдость, определение микротвёрдости
moisture absorption test — испытание на влагопоглощение
moisture permeability test — испытание на водопроницаемость
moisture-proofness test — испытание на влагостойкость [влагонепроницаемость]
moisture-resistance test — испытание на влагонепроницаемость [влагостойкость]
Mooney viscosity test — определение вязкости по Муни
Naval Ordnance Laboratory ring test — испытание кольцевых образцов по методу лаборатории вооружения ВМС США, испытание колец NOL
NOL ring test — испытание колец NOL, испытание кольцевых образцов по методу лаборатории вооружения ВМС США
NOL multiaxial fatigue test — многоосное испытание колец NOL на усталость
nondestructive test — 1) испытание без разрушения ( образца) 2) неразрушающий контроль
notched-bar impact test — испытание на удар надрезанного образца, определение ударной вязкости надрезанного образца
notched bend test — испытание на изгиб надрезанного образца
notched tensile test — испытание на разрыв надрезанного образца
notch shock test — испытание на ударную вязкость надрезанного образца
odor test — 1) испытание на запах 2) проба на запах
oil-resistance test — испытание на маслостойкость
outdoor exposure test — испытание [выдержка] на открытом воздухе
oven test — испытание на тепловое старение в печи
oxidation test — испытание на окисление
oxygen bomb test — испытание на искусственное старение в кислородной бомбе
ozone aging test — испытание на старение в озоне
peeling test — 1) испытание на отслаивание 2) испытание на отрыв
pendulum impact test — испытание на удар маятниковым копром
penetrant fluid test — контроль проникающей жидкостью
penetrant nondestructive test — контроль проникающим веществом без разрушения ( образца)
performance test — 1) испытание в эксплуатационных условиях 2) определение характеристик ( материала)
plasma torch test — испытание плазменной горелкой
plasticity test — 1) испытание на пластичность 2) определение пластичности
pliability test — 1) определение пластичности 2) испытание на пластичность
plastic range test — определение пределов пластичности
ply separation test — испытание на расслоение [отслоение]
porosity test — проба на пористость ( травлением)
pulling test — испытание на растяжение [разрыв]
pulsed eddy-current test — 1) проверка импульсными вихревыми токами 2) электроиндуктивная дефектоскопия
pure-bending test — испытание на чистый изгиб
qual test — испытание на соответствие техническим условиям
qualification test — испытание на соответствие техническим условиям
quenching test — проба на прокаливаемость
quick test — ускоренное испытание, экспресс-анализ
radiant-heating test — испытание на лучистый нагрев
radiation test — радиационное испытание
radiographic test — 1) радиографический контроль 2) рентгенографический контроль 3) гаммаграфический контроль
rebound test — испытание на эластичность по отскоку
reliability test — испытание на надёжность
repeated compression test — испытание на усталость при многократных сжатиях
repeated impact test — испытание на динамическую выносливость
repeated stress test — испытание на усталость [выносливость] при повторных нагрузках
repeated tension test — испытание на многократное растяжение
resin test — 1) испытание смолы 2) испытание связующего
reverse bending test — испытание на знакопеременный изгиб
ring test — кольцевое испытание, испытание кольцевого образца
Rockwell hardness test — определение твёрдости по Роквеллу
room-temperature burst test — разрывное испытание при комнатной температуре
room-temperature cycle test — циклическое испытание при комнатной температуре
rotational drop test — испытание на маятниковом копре
rupture test — испытание на разрушение [разрыв, прочность]
safe-life test — испытание на безопасный срок хранения ( ракетного топлива)
scleroscope hardness test — определение твёрдости по склероскопу, склероскопическое испытание на твёрдость
scratch hardness test — испытание на твёрдость царапанием, определение твёрдости по Моосу
separation test — испытание на расслоение
service test — испытание в эксплуатационных условиях, эксплуатационное испытание
shearing test — испытание на сдвиг [срез, скалывание]
shock test — испытание на удар, ударное испытание
shock-bending test — испытание на изгиб ударом
Shore indentional test — определение твёрдости по Шору
Shore scleroscope test — определение твёрдости по Шору
short-time test — кратковременное испытание, экспресс-испытание, экспресс-анализ
sieve test — ситовый анализ
sieving test — ситовый анализ
simulated environment test — испытание в условиях, имитирующих окружающую среду
simulated space test — испытание в условиях, имитирующих космические
sintering test — испытание на спекаемость
size test — гранулометрический анализ
sizing test — гранулометрический анализ
sonic test — испытание ультразвуковым методом
space test — испытание в космических условиях
specific-gravity test — определение удельного веса
standard test — 1) стандартное [типовое] испытание 2) стандартная проба
static test — статическое испытание
static-fatigue test — статическое испытание на усталость
static notched bend test — статическое испытание на изгиб надрезанного образца
static vibration test — статическое испытание на вибрацию
stiffness test — испытание на жёсткость
strain-cycling test — испытание методом циклического деформирования
strength test — 1) испытание па прочность 2) определение временного сопротивления
stress-corrosion test — испытание на коррозию под напряжением
stress-durability test — испытание на длительную прочность [статическую усталость]
stress relaxation test — испытание на релаксацию напряжений
stretching test — испытание на растяжение [сопротивление разрыву], испытание на удлинение при разрыве
strip peel test — испытание на отслаивание ленты
structural test — испытание на прочность
tearing test — 1) испытание на разрыв [раздир] 2) испытание на износ
temperature test — температурное испытание, испытание на нагрев
tenacity test — 1) испытание на разрыв 2) испытание на растяжение 3) испытание на вязкость [прилипание]
tensile test — 1) испытание на разрыв 2) испытание на растяжение
tensile fatigue test — испытание на усталость при растяжении
tensile impact test — 1) ударное испытание на разрыв 2) ударное испытание на растяжение
tensile shock test — 1) ударное испытание на растяжение 2) ударное испытание на разрыв
tensile strength test — определение временного сопротивления на растяжение, испытание на разрыв
tension test — 1) испытание на растяжение 2) определение диаграммы растяжения
tension fatigue test — испытание на усталость при растяжении
thermal test — тепловое [термическое] испытание
thermal fatigue test — испытание на термическую усталость, термоциклическое испытание
thermal shock test — испытание на тепловой удар
thermomechanical test — термомеханическое испытание
torque test — испытание на кручение [скручивание]
torsional test — испытание на скручивание [кручение]
torsion shear test — испытание на срез при скручивании
toughness test — испытание на ( ударную) вязкость
tracer test — испытание методом меченых атомов
transverse-bending test — испытание на поперечный изгиб
twisting test — испытание на кручение [скручивание]
uniaxial shear test — испытание на чистый сдвиг
uniaxial tensile test — испытание на одноосное растяжение
uninflammability test — испытание на невоспламеняемость
unnotched tensile test — испытание на разрыв ненадрезанного образца
upsetting test — испытание на раздачу ( труб)
vacuum test — испытание в вакууме
vibration test — испытание на вибрацию [вибропрочность]
vibroacoustic test — виброакустическое испытание
Vickers diamond-pyramide hardness test — определение твёрдости вдавливанием алмазной пирамиды по Виккерсу
Vickers hardness test — испытание на твёрдость по Виккерсу, определение твёрдости по Виккерсу
viscosity test — испытание на вязкость, определение вязкости, реологическое испытание
V-notch test — испытание образца с V-образным надрезом
V-notch impact test — испытание на удар образца с V-образным надрезом
waterproof test — испытание на водостойкость
wearing test — 1) испытание на износ 2) испытание на истирание
weathering test — 1) испытание на старение в атмосферных условиях 2) испытание на погодостойкость
weatherproof test — 1) испытание на погодостойкость 2) испытание на атмосферную коррозию
weight-loss test — испытание на коррозию по убыли веса образца
weldability test — испытание на свариваемость
welding test — испытание на свариваемость
X-ray test — 1) рентгеновское [рентгеноскопическое] испытание 2) рентгеновский [рентгенографический] анализ
English-Russian dictionary of aviation and space materials > test
См. также в других словарях:
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