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41 saint-antoine
nf. (fête le 17 janvier): Sint-Antwéno (Albanais 001a, Annecy), Sin-T(y)wéno (001b | Combe-Sillingy). -
42 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, Franced. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France[br]French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.[br]Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.Bibliography1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.Further Reading"Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.ASDBiographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
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43 Claudet, Antoine François Jean
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 12 August 1797 Franced. 27 December 1867 London, England[br]French pioneer photographer and photographic inventor in England.[br]He began his working life in banking but soon went into glassmaking and in 1829 he moved to London to open a glass warehouse. On hearing of the first practicable photographic processes in 1834, Claudet visited Paris, where he received instruction in the daguerreotype process from the inventor Daguerre, and purchased a licence to operate in England. On returning to London he began to sell daguerreotype views of Paris and Rome, but was soon taking and selling his own views of London. At this time exposures could take as long as thirty minutes and portraiture from life was impracticable. Claudet was fascinated by the possibilities of the daguerreotype and embarked on experiments to improve the process. In 1841 he published details of an accelerated process and took out a patent proposing the use of flat painted backgrounds and a red light in dark-rooms. In June of that year Claudet opened the second daguerreotype portrait studio in London, just three months after his rival, Richard Beard. He took stereoscopic photographs for Wheatstone as early as 1842, although it was not until the 1850s that stereoscopy became a major interest. He suggested and patented several improvements to viewers derived from Brewster's pattern.Claudet was also one of the first photographers to practise professionally Talbot's calotype process. He became a personal friend of Talbot, one of the few from whom the inventor was prepared to accept advice. Claudet died suddenly in London following an accident that occurred when he was alighting from an omnibus. A memoir produced shortly after his death lists over forty scientific papers relating to his researches into photography.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1853.Further Reading"The late M.Claudet", 1868, Photographic News 12:3 (obituary)."A.Claudet, FRS, a memoir", 1968, (reprinted from The Scientific Review), London: British Association (a fulsome but valuable Victorian view of Claudet).H.Gernsheim and A.Gernsheim, 1969, The History of Photography, rev. edn, London (a comprehensive account of Claudet's daguerreotype work).H.J.P.Arnold, 1977, William Henry Fox Talbot, London (provides details of Claudet's relationship with Talbot).JWBiographical history of technology > Claudet, Antoine François Jean
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44 Pixii, Antoine Hippolyte
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 1808 Franced. 1835[br]French instrument maker who devised the first machine to incorporate the basic elements of a modern electric generator.[br]Mechanical devices to transform energy from a mechanical to an electrical form followed shortly after Faraday's discovery of induction. One of the earliest was Pixii's magneto generator. Pixii had been an instrument maker to Arago and Ampère for a number of years and his machine was first announced to the Academy of Sciences in Paris in September 1832. In this hand-driven generator a permanent magnet was rotated in close proximity to two coils on soft iron cores, producing an alternating current. Subsequently Pixii adapted to a larger version of his machine a "see-saw" switch or commutator devised by Ampère, in order to obtain a unidirectional current. The machine provided a current similar to that obtained with a chemical cell and was capable of decomposing water into oxygen and hydrogen. It was the prototype of many magneto-electric machines which followed.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAcademy of Sciences, Paris, Gold Medal 1832.Further ReadingB.Bowers, 1982, A History of Electric Light and Power, London, pp. 70–2 (describes the development of Pixii's generator).C.Jackson, 1833, "Notice of the revolving electric magnet of Mr Pixii of Paris", American Journal of Science 24:146–7.GWBiographical history of technology > Pixii, Antoine Hippolyte
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45 אנטואן ואטו
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), Jean-Antoine Watteau, French painter known for his Rococo style -
46 אנטואן אנרי בקרל
Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), French physicist, winner of the Nobel prize in Physics in 1903 (discovered radioactivity in uranium) -
47 אנטואן דה סנט-אכזופרי
Antoine de Saint-Exupery (1900-1944), French aviator and writer, author of "the Little Prince" -
48 Беккерель, Антуан Анри
Antoine Henri Becquerel -
49 Лавуазье, Антуан Лоран
Antoine Lavoisier -
50 Беккерель, Антуан Анри
Antoine Henri Becquerel -
51 Лавуазье, Антуан Лоран
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier -
52 уравнение Антуана
Русско-немецкий словарь по химии и химической технологии > уравнение Антуана
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53 Антуан
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54 Anton
Antoine -
55 Antonius
Antoine -
56 앙투안 라부아지에
Antoine Lavoisier -
57 Անտուան Լորան Լավուազիե
Antoine LavoisierՀայերեն թուրքերեն բառարան (Armenian-Turkish dictionary) > Անտուան Լորան Լավուազիե
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58 Cournot model
эк. модель Курно (модель количественной дуополии, в которой при фиксированной цене фирма изменяет свой выпуск исходя из предпосылки, что выпуск ее соперника останется неизменным)Syn:See:Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin, Cournot, Antoine Augustin -
59 Bertrand, Joseph Louis Francois
перс.эк. Бертран, Джозеф Луис Франсуа (1822-1900; французский математик, сделал вклад в экономическую науку благодаря своей критике работ О. Курно и Л. Вальраса, на основе которой им была предложена модель дуополии, базирующаяся на иных допущениях, чем модель Курно; в частности, им было предложено в качестве управляемых переменных использовать не объемы выпуска, а цены дуополистов)See:Англо-русский экономический словарь > Bertrand, Joseph Louis Francois
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60 political economy
1) эк., ист. политическая экономия (обозначение экономической науки, введенное в оборот в XVI в. А. Монкретьеном и сохранявшееся до введения А. Маршаллом в конце XIX в. понятия economics; в первых трактатах обозначало "управление государственным хозяйством": трактаты были обращены государю и содержали рекомендации о наиболее разумной политике для увеличения его богатства и богатства его народа; во времена А. Смита и Д. Рикардо акцент сместился в сторону позитивного изучения механизма функционирования экономики, но рекомендации относительно экономической политики всегда оставались в поле зрения теоретиков)See:economics, Montchrétien, Antoine de, Montchrétien, Antoine de, Montchrétien, Antoine de, Montchrétien, Antoine de2) эк., пол. = new political economy* * *
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