-
41 смислен
conceived, thought out, devised; forged, fabricated* * *(добро)argumentative -
42 दधीच
dadhīcam. = - dhy-ác (devoted himself to death that Indra might slay Vṛitra with the thunderbolt fabricated by Tvashṭṛi out of his bones)
MBh. I, III, IX (father of Sārasvata by Sarasvati, 2929 ff.), XII ;
(blamed Daksha q.v.) VāyuP. I, 30, 103 ff. KūrmaP. I, 15, 6 ff. (v.l. -ā);
author with the pātr. Pāthnya Anukr. on Kāṭh. XVI, 4. ;
- दधीचक्षुपसंवाद
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43 component
1) компонент, составная часть, элемент; деталь, обрабатываемая деталь2) составляющая (напр. силы)•- accessory componentsto reverse the component — поворачивать деталь на 180°
- add-on component
- aerospace components
- affected component
- alloy component
- architectural component
- arm component
- assembled component
- axial component
- axial leaded component
- bar-coded component
- bar-shaped component
- base component
- bought-in component
- bought-out component
- building block components
- Cartesian components of velocity
- centers-mounted component
- chucked component
- component of force
- component of gravity
- component of unbalance
- composed component
- composite component
- computer component
- conjugated component
- constant component
- contour-milled component
- control component
- controlled component
- coupling component
- cross component
- cutting force component
- data handling component
- defense-related components
- delay component
- direct component
- discontinued components
- drive components
- encapsulated component
- error component
- executive component
- expert system component
- fabricated components
- finish-machined component
- first-off component
- floating component
- force component
- forced component
- formed component
- free component
- front component of unbalance
- fundamental component
- gear component
- general components
- generic components
- gravitational component
- harmonic component
- high-frequency component
- incorrect component
- independent component
- injection-molded component
- in-tolerance component
- irregular component
- key component
- key-turned component
- laser beam travel optical component
- lateral component
- lead component
- machine components
- master component
- mid-of-tolerance component
- miniature component
- misbehaving component
- modular components
- multibend component
- multifeature component
- nonrotational component
- nonstock components
- normalized components
- obsolete components
- odd component
- odd-shaped component
- OEM components
- off-the-shelf components
- one-axis component
- one-off component
- pallet-mounted component
- periodic component
- peripheral force component
- piece part component
- point-to-point NC component
- power-steering components
- preamp component
- preformed component
- pre-production components
- primary component
- primitive component
- principal force component
- printed component
- programmable component
- projection component
- radial component of driving force
- radial component
- radial force component
- rear component of unbalance
- replacement component
- restoring component
- ring component
- rotary component
- rotational component
- rotational machined component
- sample component
- scrap components
- scrapped components
- sealing component
- separating component of driving force
- shaft rotary component
- sheet metal component
- short cycle component
- short operation component
- small batch component
- space-related component
- stabilizing component
- stable component
- stamped blank component
- steady state component
- structural component
- subharmonic component
- subminiature components
- substructure components
- surface mounted component
- system's crucial components
- tangential component of driving force
- three-dimensional curved component
- through-hole component
- tooling components
- transient component
- translational component
- transverse component
- turned component
- two-axis component
- two-dimensional component
- undefined component
- under-skin components
- unstable component
- useful component
- variable componentEnglish-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > component
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44 unit
1) сборочная единица; узел; блок2) установка; агрегат3) единица, единица измерения || единичный; удельный4) часть; секция || секционный•as a unit — 1) в сборе 2) как единая сборочная единица; как единый узел
unit under test — 1) объект контроля 2) объект диагностирования, объект технического диагностирования
- AC unit- actuating unit
- adapter plate unit
- adaptive control unit
- address and data interface unit
- address unit
- adjusting unit
- air-aspirating unit
- answer-back unit
- arithmetic unit
- arithmetic/logic unit
- arithmetical unit
- ASC unit
- assembly unit of N-order
- assembly unit
- audio response unit
- autoloading unit
- automatic calling unit
- auxiliary data translator unit
- availability control unit
- axis unit
- axis-processing unit
- balancer unit
- banking unit
- bar feed unit
- base assembly unit
- base unit
- basic information unit
- basic length unit
- basic logic unit
- batch control unit
- bearing unit
- behind-the-tape reader unit
- belt shuttle unit
- belt-driven shuttle unit
- bench-testing unit
- blemished unit
- bolt-on unit
- booster unit
- boring spindle unit
- boring unit
- boring-and-milling unit
- brake unit
- broach retriever unit
- broach-handling unit
- broken tool sensing unit
- buffer unit
- building-block machining unit
- bulk transfer unit
- business unit
- card punching unit
- carousel loading unit
- carousel unit
- carrier unit
- cartridge unit
- cellular unit
- center unit for machine frame
- central processing unit
- central processor unit
- chain storage unit
- changer unit
- changing unit
- check unit
- chiller unit
- chip disposal unit
- clamping unit
- claw unit
- CNC machining unit
- CNC standard unit
- CNC unit
- coating application unit
- coating removal unit
- coherent unit
- column unit
- combination valve unit
- command unit
- communications central processing unit
- complementary unit
- computerized numerical control unit
- condensing unit
- cone variable-speed friction drive unit
- console unit
- constant coefficient unit
- constant delay unit
- construction unit
- control unit
- controlling unit
- conveying unit
- conveyor unit
- coolant management unit
- coolant recovery unit
- coolant unit
- cooler unit
- cooling unit
- coordinate preprogramming unit
- copying unit
- correction unit
- cover unit
- CPC handling unit
- cross tapping unit
- cross-slide unit
- cutoff unit
- cutting unit
- D unit
- damping unit
- data preparation unit
- data transmission control unit
- deep hole boring unit
- delay unit
- derived unit
- detecting unit
- detection unit
- developing unit
- digital display unit
- digital readout unit
- digital unit
- dimension readout unit
- diode array unit
- disk-type variable-speed friction drive unit
- displacement unit
- display unit
- distance-keeping unit
- double-acting unit
- double-notching unit
- double-pump and combination unit
- double-pump unit
- double-reduction gear unit
- double-reduction right-angle reduction gear unit
- double-reduction twin gear unit
- double-reduction twin unit
- double-reduction wormgear unit
- double-spindle unit
- down-hole internal deburrer unit
- dresser unit
- dressing unit
- drill unit
- drilling and milling unit
- drilling spindle unit
- drilling unit
- drilling/tapping unit
- drive unit
- drive/feed unit
- DRO unit
- dual work pallet shuttle unit
- dual-head laser beam unit
- dust-collecting unit
- dust-removing unit
- dynamic unit
- EDM unit
- electrical machining units
- electromagnetic unit
- electron-beam unit
- entry level dedicated unit
- environmental compensation unit
- exchanger unit
- fabricated unit
- facing unit
- fan coil unit
- feed box unit
- feed change unit
- feed drive cartridge unit
- feed unit
- feedback unit
- feed-in boring unit
- feed-out boring unit
- fetch-and-carry unit
- filtration unit
- fine boring unit
- flexible spindle units
- flexible tray unit
- floor unit
- focusing unit
- free-standing unit
- free-wheel unit
- free-wheeling unit
- frontal variable-speed friction drive unit
- functional unit
- fundamental unit
- gage control unit
- gage indicating unit
- gage unit
- gaging unit
- gas turbine starter auxiliary power unit
- gear unit
- gearbox unit
- gear-reversing unit
- grasping unit
- grinding spindle unit
- gripper unit
- guide unit
- handling unit
- hardware/software add-on unit
- harmonic drive unit
- head unit
- headstock-type workpiece holding unit
- hoisting unit
- horizontal power unit
- horizontal way unit
- hydraulic clamping unit
- hydraulic feed unit
- hydraulic power unit
- hydraulic testing unit
- hydraulic unit
- hydrostatic bearing unit
- ICAM manufacturing unit
- ICAM unit
- icon-driven control unit
- indexer/fourth axis unit
- indexing head unit
- indexing platen unit
- indexing table unit
- indexing unit
- in-die tapping unit
- information retrieval unit
- information unit
- input batch control unit
- input unit
- input-output unit
- in-system unit
- integral unit
- interface unit
- intermediate storage unit
- interpolating unit
- inverting unit
- keyboard unit
- knee-type unit
- lapping and superfinishing unit
- laser beam composition unit
- laser beam unit
- laser processing unit
- laser unit
- laser-calibration unit
- laser-source unit
- lead screw tap unit
- lexical unit
- lift unit
- lift-and-carry unit
- light unit
- linear ball bearing unit
- linear drive unit
- linear screw unit
- linear slide roller bearing unit
- linear unit
- live storage unit
- load/unload unit
- loading unit
- loading-and-unloading unit
- logic unit
- logical unit
- lubricating pump unit
- machine control unit
- machine tool control unit
- machine tooling unit
- machine unit
- machine-dedicated unit
- machining center unit
- machining head unit
- machining unit
- magnetic pickup unit
- magnetic tape unit
- manned flexible unit
- marking unit
- master unit
- material-handling unit
- MDI unit
- measurement unit
- measuring unit
- memory unit
- message display unit
- microdispensing unit
- microprocessor correction unit
- microprocessor NC unit
- microprocessor unit
- microprocessor-based unit
- microprocessor-type NC unit
- middle-level 3-D representation unit
- milling spindle unit
- minicomputer control unit
- miniload AS/RS unit
- mist coolant unit
- miter saw unit
- mobile unit
- mobile work storage unit
- modular cell unit
- modular loading unit
- modular unit
- motor unit
- motor-reduction unit
- multichannel analyzer unit
- multidrill unit
- multiple screw-driving unit
- multiple-power path gear unit
- multiple-reduction gear unit
- multiple-reduction unit
- multiple-spindle torque unit
- multipurpose machining unit
- multispindle boring unit
- multitap unit
- NC data creation unit
- NC unit
- nested gear unit
- notching unit
- nutating unit
- off-machine unit
- off-system unit
- oil coalescer unit
- oil-filled feed unit
- one stage gear unit
- one stage unit
- on-machine unit
- operation unit
- operational unit
- operator-friendly program unit
- orientation transfer unit
- output batch control unit
- output unit
- overhead gantry unit
- overhead spindle unit
- pack unit
- pallet change unit
- pallet exchange unit
- pallet shuttle unit
- pallet-pool unit
- parallel-shaft reduction gear unit
- PC expansion board unit
- PC-based CAD unit
- pendant control unit
- pendant pushbutton control unit
- pendant unit
- peripheral control unit
- peripheral processing unit
- photo-eye tracing unit
- pick-and-place unit
- pickup unit
- piece-holding unit
- pilot unit
- placement unit
- planetary gear unit
- planetary reduction gearing unit
- plant unit
- plasma-arc unit
- plasmarc unit
- platen unit
- PLC unit
- plugboard input unit
- plugboard unit
- plug-in unit
- pneumatic unit
- portable unit
- power feed unit
- power supply unit
- power train unit
- power unit
- power-generating unit
- power-tooling unit
- practical correction unit
- practical unit
- presetting unit
- pressurized air bearing unit
- primary storage unit
- probe unit
- processing unit
- production unit
- program unit
- programming unit
- propulsion unit
- pulling unit
- pump unit
- pumping unit
- pump-motor unit
- quill feed cam unit
- quill spindle unit
- quill unit
- raster unit
- readout unit
- reducing unit
- reduction gear unit
- reduction gearing unit
- reduction unit
- reed make contact unit
- regulating unit
- remote display unit
- replacement unit
- retriever unit
- right-angle milling unit
- right-angled milling unit
- robot power unit
- robot unit
- robot-transfer unit
- roller bearing unit
- roller unit
- roller-marking unit
- rotary unit
- rotating seal unit
- S unit
- scanning unit
- scheduling unit
- screen projection unit
- screwing unit
- sealed reed contact unit
- self-contained NC unit
- self-contained unit
- sensing unit
- sensor unit
- servo unit
- shankless boring unit
- sheet metal stamping automatic unit
- shop replaceable unit
- shuttle unit
- shuttle-and-lift unit
- side unit
- single-acting unit
- single-light unit
- single-reduction gear unit
- single-reduction unit
- sizing unit
- slant bed unit
- slave unit
- slide unit
- sliding table unit
- smallest replaceable unit
- spare unit
- speeder unit
- speed-increase unit
- speed-up spindle unit
- speed-up unit
- spindle box unit
- spindle cartridge unit
- spindle drive unit
- spindle unit
- stabilizing unit
- stand-alone unit
- standard build units
- starter auxiliary power unit
- static tooling unit
- steam generating unit
- stock feed unit
- storage unit
- stylus unit
- sub-multiple unit
- swing arm-mounted control unit
- tangent unit
- tapping unit
- teach control unit
- terminal control unit
- test unit
- testing unit
- thermal detecting unit
- tilting unit
- tolerance unit
- tool storage unit
- tool-presetting unit
- tool-spindle unit
- toroidal variable-speed friction drive unit
- track and store unit
- transfer unit
- transmission control unit
- transmission unit
- transmitter/receiver unit
- transport unit
- triple-reduction gear unit
- triple-reduction unit
- tuning unit
- turnaround unit
- turning spindle unit
- turnround unit
- turret unit
- twin gear unit
- twin saw unit
- twin-drive unit
- twin-screen unit
- unit of displacement
- unit of measure
- unit of measurement
- unit of physical quantity
- unit of product
- unit of work per unit of time
- unmanned machining unit
- vacuum unit
- variable coefficient unit
- variable delay unit
- variable preload bearing unit
- variable ratio unit
- variable speed unit
- variable-speed friction drive unit
- V-axis grinding unit
- V-belt variable-speed drive unit
- V-drive unit
- vertical way unit
- vibratory feed unit
- vise unit
- visual display unit
- vocal output unit
- VTL unit
- waveform gear reduction unit
- wheel-dressing unit
- wheel-head unit
- wing unit
- wing-base unit
- work storage unit
- work-holding headstock unit
- workshop video unit
- work-testing unit
- worm reduction unit
- writing unit
- yet-to-be-assembled unitEnglish-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > unit
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45 goods
1) товар, товары; изделия2) груз; багаж -
46 material
n1) материал, вещество2) данные, факты, материал
- advertising material
- advertising and display material
- artificial material
- auxiliary material
- available material
- base material
- basic material
- building material
- bulk materials
- census material
- cheap material
- classified material
- commercial material
- competitive material
- construction material
- consumable material
- contaminating materials
- copyright material
- covering material
- critical material
- crude material
- customer's material
- dangerous materials
- defective material
- defence materials
- deficient raw materials
- descriptive material
- direct materials
- documentary material
- domestic raw materials
- durable material
- educational material
- expendable material
- experimental material
- fabricated materials
- faulty material
- finishing material
- first-grade material
- granular material
- high grade material
- high-quality material
- illustrated materials
- illustrative materials
- imported raw materials
- improper material
- indirect materials
- information material
- initial material
- inventory materials
- key materials
- key raw materials
- less costly material
- local material
- low-grade material
- manmade materials
- mined materials
- mineral raw materials
- nonproductive materials
- nonstandard material
- operational materials
- original material
- original raw materials
- packaging materials
- packing materials
- plastic materials
- primary material
- printed material
- production materials
- productive material
- promotional material
- protective material
- publicity material
- raw materials
- rejected material
- scarce material
- secondary raw materials
- selected materials
- source material
- standard material
- statistical material
- strategic material
- strategic raw materials
- structural materials
- substandard material
- superior material
- supporting material
- surplus material
- unfit material
- unused material
- used material
- useless material
- vegetable raw materials
- war materials
- waterproof material
- material for official use
- material in short supply
- materials on hand
- materials on order
- check material
- choose material
- circulate materials
- deliver material
- distribute materials
- economize material
- economize on material
- employ material
- examine material
- furnish materials
- inspect material
- obtain material
- present material
- process material
- procure material
- provide material
- reject material
- require material
- save material
- save on material
- select material
- send out materials
- store material
- supply material
- use materialEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > material
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47 документ
юр.deed, act, instrument, document; (об отказе) waiverвырабатывать / составлять документ — to draft / to draw up / to work out a document
изучить / рассмотреть документ — to inspect / to examine to consider / to study a document
изымать из документа секретные сведения (перед публикацшй и т.п.) — to decontaminate (a document)
передать / препроводить все необходимые документы — to transmit all the necessary documents
предъявлять документы — to produce / to show one's papers / documents
снять копию с документа — to make / to take a copy of a document
смысл всего документа определяется / обусловлен вступительной частью — the sense of the whole document is governed by the introductory clause
подготовка директивных документов — preparation of guidelines / executive directives
заверенный (печатью) документ — authenticated, document
засекреченный документ — classified / secret document
итоговый документ — final / concluding document
документ завизирован, на документе стоит виза — the document has been vised / visa'd
выработать итоговые документы конференции — to draw up the final / concluding documents of the conference
основной / основополагающий документ — fundamental document
первичный документ — basic / source document
подложный / фальшивый документ — counterfeit document
рабочий документ — working document / paper
секретный / засекреченный документ — secret / classified document
служебный документ — inhouse / internal / service document
фальшивый документ — forged / phony document
документ большого политического значения — document of great political importance / significance
документ, удостоверяющий (что-л.) — document certifying (smth.)
документы, удостоверяющие личность — identity papers / document
номер или шифр документа (для ссылки) — reference number
оперативная часть документа — substantive provisions, operative part of a document
раздача / распространение документов — distribution of documents
-
48 pipe
1) труба; трубка; трубопровод3) бочка4) прокладывать трубопровод; пускать по трубам (напр. газ, воду)•- admission pipe - admitting pipe - air pipe - air-supply pipe - angle pipe - antisiphonage pipe - asbestos-cement pipe - ascending pipe - bare pipe - bent pipe - bifurcated pipe - bleeder pipe - blind pipe - blow-off pipe - branch pipe - branched pipe - brick culvert pipe - bulged-in pipe - buried pipe - bypass pipe - cash pipe - casing pipe - cast-in-place concrete pipe - ceramic pipe - channel pipe - charging pipe - circular pipe - circulation pipe - clay pipe - clogged pipe - coil pipe - cold-drawn pipe - collapsed pipe - collecting pipe - compensating pipe - concrete pipe - connecting pipe - cooling pipe - corrodible pipe - corrugated pipe - corrugated-iron pipe - cracky pipe - curved pipe - customer's service pipe - delivery pipe - discharge pipe - distributing pipe - double branch pipe - double-elbow pipe - down pipe - drag pipe - drain pipe - drawn pipe - dribble pipe - drill pipe - drive pipe - dropping pipe - drowning pipe - dry condensate return pipe - eduction pipe - elbow pipe - elbow bend pipe - electric-welded pipe - exhaust pipe - expansion pipe - expanding pipe - extraction pipe - fabricated pipe - fall pipe - feed pipe - filter pipe - fitting pipe - flanged pipe - flattened pipe - flexible pipe - flow pipe - flue pipe - flush pipe - force pipe - free-flow pipe - gas pipe - gas-cleaning pipe - gas-service pipe - gas-supply pipe - gilled pipe - glazed pipe - header pipe - hot pipe - hot-water pipe - influent pipe - inlet pipe - inserted-joint pipe - installation gas pipe - insulated pipe - intake pipe - knee pipe - land pipe - lavatory waste pipe - leader pipe - leaky pipe - line pipe - low-head pipe - main pipe - manifold pipe - mantle pipe - metal pipe - muffler pipe - network pipe - non-pressure pipe - offset pipe - open-jointed pipe - outfall pipe - outlet pipe - overflow pipe - overhead pipe - perforated pipe - plastic pipe - PPRC pipe - pressure pipe - puff pipe - pumpcrete pipe - PVC pipe - rainwater pipe - reducing pipe - reinforced-concrete pipe - return pipe - ribbed heating pipe - riser pipe - rolled pipe - run pipe - rust-eaten pipe - sag pipe - scour pipe - screen pipe - screwed pipe - seamed pipe - seamless pipe - serpentine pipe - service pipes - sewer pipe - shunt pipe - siphon pipe - slotter pipe - sludge discharge pipe - sluice pipe - smoke pipe - smooth pipe - socket pipe - soil pipe - soil and vent pipe - sparge pipe - spun pipe - stand pipe - stave pipe - steel pipe - steel galvanized pipe - stoneware pipe - stove pipe - suction pipe - supply pipe - surge pipe - swan-neck pipe - sweep-up pipe - take-off pipe - taper pipe - tee branch pipe - thick-walled pipe - thin-walled pipe - threaded pipe - three-way pipe - tile pipe - valve-controlled pipe - ventilation pipe - vitrified-clay pipe - warm-air pipe - warning pipe - wash pipe - waste-water pipe - water pipe - water-discharge pipe - water-distributing pipe - water-drain pipe - water-inlet pipe - water-service pipe - weep pipe - welded pipe - weldless drawn pipe - worm pipe* * *труба- air pipe
- antisiphonage pipe
- asbestos-cement pipe
- aspiration pipe
- balance pipe
- bare pipe
- bellmouth pipe
- bleed pipe
- bottom pipe
- Bourdon pipe
- branch pipe
- bypass pipe
- cast-iron drain pipe
- centrifugally-cast pipe
- circulation pipe
- clay pipe
- communication pipe
- concrete pipe
- condensate return pipe
- conductor pipe
- connecting pipe
- corrugated pipe
- customer's service pipe
- diminishing pipe
- discharge pipe
- distributing pipe
- double branch pipe
- drain pipe
- draw-off pipe
- dredging pipe
- drill pipe
- drive pipe
- drowning pipe
- dry condensate return pipe
- equivalent pipe
- exhaust steam pipe
- expansion pipe
- fall pipe
- filter pipe
- flexible pipe
- flow pipe
- flush pipe
- furred hot-water pipes
- furred pipes
- galvanized pipe
- gas pipe
- gas service pipe
- gilled pipe
- glazed stoneware pipe
- heat pipe
- ice pipe
- indirect drain pipe
- inspection pipe
- installation pipe
- instrument branch pipe
- intake pipe
- mantle pipe
- outfall pipe
- outlet pipe
- overflow pipe
- penstock pipe
- plain-ended pipe
- plastic pipe
- pressure pipe
- puff pipe
- pumpcrete pipe
- PVC pipe
- rainwater pipe
- ribbed pipe
- riser pipe
- sag pipe
- salt-glazed earthenware pipe
- screwed pipe
- seamless pipe
- service pipe
- sewer pipe
- shunt pipe
- single-hub pipe
- sludge extraction pipe
- sludge pipe
- snorer pipe
- socket pipe
- soil and vent pipe
- sparge pipe
- spray pipe
- stoneware pipe
- suction pipe
- sump pipe
- supply pipe
- supply pipe from source
- surge pipe
- tail pipe
- taper pipe
- thick-walled pipe
- thin-walled pipe
- vent pipe
- ventilating pipe
- ventilation pipe
- Venturi pipe
- vitrified ceramic drain pipe
- vitrified-clay pipe
- vitrified pipe
- warning pipe
- waste pipe
- water pipe
- water distributing pipe
- water service pipe
- well screen pipe
- wet condensate return pipe
- wood-stave pipe -
49 devised
разрабатывать; разработанныйСинонимический ряд:1. contrived (verb) contrived; cooked up; dreamed up or dreamt up; framed; hatched up; made up; vamped up2. hatched (verb) concocted; dream up; fabricated; formulated; hatched; invented; make up; think up3. planned (verb) arranged; blueprinted; cast; charted; designed; draw up; planned; projected4. plotted (verb) cogitated; connived; conspired; intrigued; machinated; plotted; schemed out5. willed (verb) bequeathed; left; legated; willed -
50 World War II
(1939-1945)In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). -
51 εἴδωλον
εἴδωλον, ου, τό (Hom. et al. ordinarily in the sense: form, image, shadow, phantom; cp. Ath. 27, 1; Hippol., Ref. 4, 50, 2; AcJ 28 [Aa II/1] 166, 13 used by a Christian of his bodily appearance as opposed to his real Christian self; LexGrMin 53, 20–24). In the LXX εἴδωλον bridges two views: the deities of the nations have no reality, and so are truly the products of fantasy; and they are manufactured by human hands (cp. the satire expressed, e.g., 3 Km 18:27; Jer 2:27f; Is 44:12–17).① cultic image/representation of an alleged transcendent being, image, representation (cp. Chaeremon Fgm. 25 Db p. 38 H.: the falcon as εἰ. of the sun signifies a deity; Is 30:22; 2 Ch 23:17; Tob 14:6; EpJer 72; Just., A I, 64, 1 τὸ εἰ. τῆς λεγομένης Κο͂ρης; Ath. 15, 1; Orig., C. Cels. 3, 15, 15 [w. ἀγάλματα]; cp. Polyb. 30, 25, 13 θεῶν ἢ δαιμόνων εἴδωλα ‘images of gods or demi-gods’; Vett. Val. 67:5; 113, 17; Cat. Cod. Astr. VII p. 176, 22; OGI 201, 8; PStras 91, 10; PSI 901, 13 and 22). Sacrifices were made to it (Nicol. Dam.: 90 Fgm. 13, 23 p. 407, 31 Jac. πρὸς τῷ εἰδώλῳ ἀποσφάττεσθαι; Num 25:2; 1 Macc 1:43; cp. Orig., C. Cels. 1, 36, 32 ἀπὸ τῶν εἰ. μαντείαν λαβεῖν; since Mosaic law forbade material representation of God, all references in our lit. to a divine image, usu. transliterated ‘idol’, relate to polytheistic Gr-Rom. depiction) Ac 7:41; gold and silver (Ps 113:12) Rv 9:20. εἴδωλα ἄφωνα images that cannot speak 1 Cor 12:2 (but s. 2 below; cp. Hab 2:18; 3 Macc 4:16; JosAs 3:10 πρόσωπα τῶν εἰ.; 8:5 εἴ. νεκρὰ καὶ κωφά al.; Ar. 13, 1 θεοποιούμενοι τὰ κωφὰ καὶ ἀναίσθητα εἴ. ‘making gods out of mute and insensible images’.—Polytheists also know that the images of the gods are lifeless: e.g. Artem. 4, 36 ταῦτα οὐ ζῇ; for Ancient Near East s. MGruber, DDD 240. τούτων εἰδώλων τῶν πλάνων ‘these deceptive [deified] images’ ApcPt Bodl. ἵνα μηκέτι εἰδώλοις λατρεύῃς καὶ κνίσαις ‘so that you might no longer devote yourselves to images and sacrificial smoke’ AcPl Ha 2, 32. Cp. εἴδωλα, ἔργα χειρῶν ἀνθρώπων Theoph. Ant. 2, 34 [p.184, 25]).② through metonymy the image and the deity or divinity alleged to be represented are freq. associated in such manner that the image factor is less significant than the component of unreality or spuriousness of what is represented (cp. Is 44:6–20; 46;1–7; Wsd 13–14) fabricated/imaged deity, idol (oft. LXX, also Philo; Jos., Ant. 9, 273; 10, 50; TestReub 4:6; TestSol; TestJos 4:5; 6:5; JosAs; Just., A I, 49, 5 al.; Iren. 1, 15, 4 [Harv. I 153, 7] al.; Orig., C. Cels. 5, 43, 11 [w. δαίμονες]) βδελύσσεσθαι τὰ εἴ. abhor idols Ro 2:22; cp. B 4:8. … ὅτι εἴ. τί ἐστιν; (do I mean to say) that an imaged deity is anything? 1 Cor 10:19 (i.e. the cult object as alleged image is evident, but its subject has no real existence as a god; Paul means that if any transcendent reality is at all to be assigned to an εἴδωλον, its status is not that of a god but of the lesser beings known as δαίμονες 1 Cor 10:20). Cp. 1 Cor 12:2 (s. 1 above). Contrasted w. the temple of God, i.e. God’s people 2 Cor 6:16. Contrasted w. God (cp. θεοὶ δὲ οὐ τὰ εἴδωλα ἢ δαίμονες Did., Gen. 248, 6) 1 Th 1:9. ἀπὸ τῶν εἰ. ἀποσπᾶν tear away fr. imaged deities 2 Cl 17:1; οὐδὲν εἴ. ἐν κόσμῳ (in wordplay w. οὐδεὶς θεός) no idol has any real existence in the universe (Twentieth Century NT) 1 Cor 8:4 (cp. the contrast between humanity as being οὐδέν and heaven that abides for the immortals Pind., N. 6, 3). τῇ συνηθείᾳ (v.l. συνειδήσει) because of their consciousness, up to now, that this is an imaged deity vs. 7; Ac 15:20; ἱερεῖς τῶν εἰ. priests of the imaged deities B 9:6. φυλάσσειν ἑαυτὸν ἀπὸ τῶν εἰ. keep oneself fr. deified illusions or ghosts (i.e. views of God that are divorced from the truth of God’s self-revelation in Jesus Christ; in contrast to this ἀλήθεια, the εἴδωλα are but phantoms in the Gr-Rom. sense of the term) 1J 5:21. JSuggit, JTS 36, ’85, 386–90. TPodella, Das Lichtkleid ’96, esp. 164–85.—B. 1491. DELG s.v. εἶδος. DDD s.v.‘AZZABIM and GILLULIM’. M-M. TW. Sv.
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