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121 Computers
The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)[Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers
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122 выше
above, higher, taller, beyond, in the foregoing• Повторяя приведенное выше рассуждение, мы получаем... - By repeating the above argument we obtain...• Приведенный выше пример 2 показывает, что... - Example 2 above shows that...• Приведенный выше пример является специальным случаем... - The example just given is a special case of...• То же самое рассуждение, что и выше, показывает, что... - The same argument as above shows that...• То, что было сказано выше, применяется в частности... - What has been said above applies in particular to... -
123 другой
other, another, different, more, else• Безусловно, существует много других форм... - There are, of course, many other forms of...• В качестве другого примера мы можем проверить... - As a further example we may examine...• Второй член в другой части уравнения... - The second term on the other hand of the equation...• Другим важным замечанием является то, что... - Another important remark is that...• Другими словами, возможно, что... - In other words, it is possible that...• Другими словами, мы бы ожидали... - In other words, we would expect...• Другими словами, мы ищем... - In other words, we seek...• Другими словами, мы хотим... - In other words, we wish to...• Другое доказательство намечено в упражнении 2. - An alternative proof is outlined in Exercise 2.• Другой возможностью является... - Another possible alternative is to...• Другой интересный результат, принадлежащий Риману, состоит в том, что... - Another interesting result, due to Riemann, is that...• Другой крайностью является... - At the other extreme is...• Другой метод был предложен Джонсом [1]. - A different method has been given by Jones [1].• Другой точки зрения придерживался Джонс [1], который... - A different view was held by Jones [1], who...• Имеется и другой смысл... - There is another sense in which...• Как мы сейчас увидим, это другая ситуация. - But here the situation is different, as we shall now see.• Мы можем взглянуть на это с другой стороны. - We can look at this in another way.• Мы можем получить то же самое заключение другим способом в случае, когда... - We can reach the same conclusion in another way for the case of...• Мы можем сказать (= сформулировать) это же в другой форме:... - Another way of saying this is...• Мы принимаем совершенно другой метод. - We adopt an entirely different method.• Однако имеется другая причина того, что... - But there is another reason that...• Однако совершенно другое дело... - It is, however, quite a different matter to...• Применим другой способ. Это значит, что... - Put the other way around, this means that...• С другой стороны, иногда очень трудно (сформулировать и т. п.)... - On the other hand, it is sometimes very difficult to...• С другой стороны, недавно полученные данные указывают, что... - On the other hand, recent findings indicate that...• С другой стороны, эксперименты показывают, что... - On the other hand, experiments show that...• Следующая теорема дает другое расширение... - The following theorem gives another extension of...• Совершенно другой подход базируется на... - A fundamentally different approach is based on...• Теперь мы переходим к другой проблеме... - We now pass to another problem...• Эти уравнения могут быть решены последовательно одно за другим. - These equations can be solved successively.• Это другой пример (чего-л). - This is another example of... -
124 интерес
(см. также интересно) interest• В настоящее время имеется значительный интерес к... - Currently, there is considerable interest in...• Данный пример имеет некоторый интерес в связи с... - This example is of some interest in connection with...• Другой случай, представляющий для нас интерес, получается, когда... - Another case of interest is obtained if...• Значительно более простая, однако имеющая практический интерес задача состоит в вычислении... - A much simpler problem, but one of practical interest, is to calculate...• Имеет исторический интерес проследить происхождение... - It is of historical interest to trace the origins of...• Имеется также нарастающий интерес к... - There is also increasing interest in...• Имеются несколько специальных случаев, представляющих для нас большой интерес. - There are several special cases of particular interest to us.• Интерес к... обострился в последние несколько лет. - Interest in... has quickened in the past few years.• Книга должна быть доступна читателям с широким кругом интересов. - The book should be accessible to readers having a wide variety of interests.• Краткие описания таких вещей (= процессов, доказательств и т. п. ) также представляют интерес... - Sketches of these patterns are also of interest.• Наш интерес, в основном, сфокусирован на... - Our interest is focused chiefly on...• Недавно наблюдался рост интереса к нахождению... - Recently there has been an upsurge in interest in finding...• Недавно наметился растущий интерес к... - Recently there has been growing interest in...• Огромный интерес вызывают свойства этого нового материала. - Great interest is focused on the properties of this new material....• Особый интерес вызывают случаи, когда... - Special interest attaches to cases in which...• Следующие моменты имеют особый интерес. - The following points are of particular interest.• Случаем огромного практического интереса является тот, в котором... - A case of great practical interest is that in which...• Случаи, имеющие практический интерес, приводятся ниже. - Cases of practical interest are given below.• Случай, вызывающий особый интерес, возникает, когда... - A case of special interest arises when...• Особый интерес представляет задача, как определить... — It is a problem of considerable interest to determine...• Возможно, тем не менее имеется некоторый интерес в том, чтобы... - Nevertheless, it is perhaps of some interest to...• Эта статья возбудила значительный интерес к задачам такого рода. - The paper have aroused considerable interest in this kind of problems.• Эти два результата имеют (для нас) значительный интерес. - These two results are of considerable interest.• Это новое открытие вызвало существенный интерес в научном сообществе. - This new discovery has aroused considerable interest in the scientific community.• Этот пример представляет лишь академический интерес. - This example is of academic interest only. -
125 chokoleti
[Swahili Word] chokoleti[Swahili Plural] chokoleti[English Word] chocolate[English Plural] chocolates[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Language] English[Derived Word] chocolate[Swahili Example] kwa krismasi watoto walipewa midoli na vitafunwa kama pipi na chokoleti[English Example] for christmas the children were given dolls and treats like candy and chocolates[Terminology] culinary------------------------------------------------------------ -
126 kimanda
------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] kimanda[Swahili Plural] vimanda[English Word] omelet[English Plural] omelets[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8[Swahili Example] aliagizia kiwanda, mkate wa kisu na kahawa [Ya][English Example] he ordered an omelette, sliced bread, and coffee[Terminology] culinary------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] kimanda[Swahili Plural] vimanda[English Word] scrambled egg[English Plural] scrambled egg[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8[Terminology] culinary------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] kimanda[Swahili Plural] vimanda[English Word] trial by ordeal (the parties are given bread to eat and the guilty person is supposed to be unable to swallow it)[English Plural] trials[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8[Derived Language] Swahili[Derived Word] manda------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] kimanda[Swahili Plural] vimanda[English Word] barb[English Plural] barbs[Taxonomy] Barbus sp.[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8an[Swahili Definition] aina ya samaki wa maji baridi[English Definition] kind of fresh water fish[Terminology] marine------------------------------------------------------------ -
127 kitafunwa
[Swahili Word] kitafunwa[Swahili Plural] vitafunwa[English Word] treat (of food)[English Plural] treats[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8[Swahili Example] kwa krismasi watoto walipewa midoli na vitafunwa kama pipi na chokoleti[English Example] for christmas the children were given dolls and treats lilke candy and chocolate[Terminology] culinary------------------------------------------------------------ -
128 maksi
------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] maksi[English Word] grade ( in a class or course)[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] Engl.[Swahili Example] Maksi hutolewa bila kutegemea msahihishaji [Masomo 191][English Example] Grades are given independently of the grader.------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] maksi[English Word] marks[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 10------------------------------------------------------------[Swahili Word] maksi[English Word] marks ( in a class or course)[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] Engl.------------------------------------------------------------
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См. также в других словарях:
given — [[t]gɪ̱v(ə)n[/t]] ♦♦♦ 1) Given is the past participle of give. 2) ADJ: det ADJ If you talk about, for example, any given position or a given time, you mean the particular position or time that you are discussing. In chess there are typically… … English dictionary
Example — Ex*am ple, n. [A later form for ensample, fr. L. exemplum, orig., what is taken out of a larger quantity, as a sample, from eximere to take out. See {Exempt}, and cf. {Ensample}, {Sample}.] 1. One or a portion taken to show the character or… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
given to doing something — given to (doing something) to be likely to do something. Members of the academic community are given to attending meetings and conferences. Usage notes: usually used after be, as in the example … New idioms dictionary
given to — (doing something) to be likely to do something. Members of the academic community are given to attending meetings and conferences. Usage notes: usually used after be, as in the example … New idioms dictionary
given the day that's in it — (Irish) This idiom is used when something is obvious because of the day that it occurs: traffic, for example would be busy around a football stadium on game day, given the day that s in it. On any other day the traffic would be unexplainable, but … The small dictionary of idiomes
Given name — A given name, in Western contexts often referred to as a first name, is a personal name that specifies and differentiates between members of a group of individuals, especially in a family, all of whose members usually share the same family name… … Wikipedia
given — giv|en1 [ˈgıvən] the past participle of ↑give given 2 given2 adj [only before noun] 1.) any/a given... any particular time, situation, amount etc that is being used as an example ▪ On any given day in the Houston area, half the hospital beds are… … Dictionary of contemporary English
Example Pictor Decoder — Pictor PCPaint PIC image format PICtor is an image file format developed by John Bridges, the principal author of PCPaint, the first Paintbrush program for the PC. It was also the native file format for Pictor Paint and GRASP (multimedia… … Wikipedia
Example of a commutative non-associative magma — In mathematics, it can be shown that there exist magmas that are commutative but not associative. A simple example of such a magma is given by considering the children s game of rock, paper, scissors.A commutative non associative magmaLet M := {… … Wikipedia
Example of a non-associative algebra — This page presents and discusses an example of a non associative division algebra over the real numbers.The multiplication is defined by taking the complex conjugate of the usual multiplication: a*b=overline{ab}. This is a commutative, non… … Wikipedia
given the day that's in it — (Irish) This idiom is used when something is obvious because of the day that it occurs: traffic, for example would be busy around a football stadium on game day, given the day that s in it. On any other day the traffic would be… … English Idioms & idiomatic expressions
