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empirical+problem

  • 1 эмпирическая задача

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > эмпирическая задача

  • 2 эмпирическая задача

    Mathematics: empirical problem

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирическая задача

  • 3 эмпирическое решение проблемы

    Русско-английский словарь по патентам и товарным знакам > эмпирическое решение проблемы

  • 4 подход

    approach
    • Альтернативный подход использует такие понятия как... - The alternative approach uses notions such as...
    • Альтернативный подход содержится в идее... - An alternative approach is contained in the idea of...
    • Альтернативным подходом является (его) запись (в виде)... - An alternative approach is to write...
    • Более научным подходом является... - A more scientific approach is to...
    • Более простой подход получается, если заметить, что... - A simpler approach is to observe that...
    • Более удовлетворительный подход описывается ниже. - A better approach is as follows.
    • Более успешный подход заключался в том, чтобы использовать... - A more successful approach has been to use...
    • Будут упомянуты три возможных подхода. - Three possible approaches will be mentioned.
    • В данной главе рассматривается еще один подход... - This chapter is concerned with yet another approach to...
    • В данном подходе имеется неявное предположение, что... - Implicit in this viewpoint is the assumption that...
    • В данном случае можно использовать другой подход. - In this case a different approach can be used.
    • В основном, различные подходы приводят к... - Different approaches will, in general, lead to...
    • В этой главе будут описываться два подхода... - This chapter will describe two approaches to...
    • Вместо этого можно воспользоваться эмпирическим подходом. - Instead, an empirical approach can be adopted.
    • Возможно, это разумный подход. - This is probably a sensible approach.
    • Данный подход должен быть изменен так, чтобы он учитывал тот факт, что... - The approach must be modified to accommodate the fact that...
    • Данный подход наиболее соответствует исследуемой задаче. - This approach is best matched to the problem under consideration.
    • Данный подход нарушает основной принцип... - This approach violates the basic principle of...
    • Данный подход показывает, что... - The present approach shows that...
    • Другие подходы к той же задаче будут намечены ниже. - The different approaches to this problem will be outlined below.
    • Другой подход поддерживался Смитом [1]. - A different approach was advocated by Smith [1].
    • Еще одним подходом является... - Still another approach is to...
    • Заслуживает упоминания другой подход к проблеме этого типа. - Another approach to problems of this type is worthy of notice.
    • Более удовлетворительный подход это... - A much more satisfactory approach is to...
    • Можно принять/предложить более детализированный подход... -It is possible to adopt/to choose/to take/to use a more detailed approach to...
    • Мы обсудим три общих подхода. - We shall discuss three general approaches.
    • Мы решили использовать более эмпирический подход. - We decided to adopt a more empirical approach.
    • Наиболее простым подходом является... - The most primitive approach is to...
    • Неадекватность чисто вычислительных подходов к данной проблеме усиливала необходимость в... - The inadequacy of purely computational approaches to the problem intensified the need for...
    • Один интересный альтернативный подход начинается с... - An interesting alternative approach begins with...
    • Один очень интересный подход был предложен Смитом [1]. - A very interesting approach has been proposed by Smith [1].
    • Однако подобный подход не является удовлетворительным, поскольку... - Such an approach, however, is usually not satisfactory because...
    • Разработчики использовали различные подходы, чтобы получить... - Designers have used various approaches in arriving at...
    • Совершенно другой подход базируется на... - A fundamentally different approach is based on...
    • Тем самым предлагается другой подход к проблеме... - This suggests another approach to the problem of...
    • Успех такого подхода будет определяться... - The success of this attack will be determined by...
    • Что теряется в подобном подходе - это... - What is lacking in such an approach is...
    • Эдисон изобрел новый подход к... - Edison invented a new way to...
    • Эта глава представляет один подход к решению... - This chapter presents one approach to the solution of...
    • Эти два подхода связаны тем обстоятельством, что... - The two aspects are related by the fact that...
    • Эти темы покрывают три различных подхода к истории математики. - The topics covered span three different approaches to the history of mathematics.
    • Это подход, предложенный Смитом [1]. - This is the approach suggested by Smith [1].
    • Этот подход был впервые опробован Смитом [1]. - This approach was first attempted by Smith [1].
    • Этот подход был использован при изучении... - This approach has been used in the study of...
    • Этот подход доказал свою полезность в определении ранних стадий... - This approach has proven useful in identifying the early stages of...
    • Этот подход имеет то преимущество, что... - This approach has the advantage that...
    • Этот подход может быть успешным лишь если... - This approach can succeed only if...
    • Этот подход особенно привлекателен ввиду... - This approach is especially attractive in view of...
    • Этот подход очень полезен при анализе эффектов (чего-л). - This approach is very useful in analyzing the effects of...
    • Этот подход предлагает существенные математические преимущества, потому что... - This approach offers considerable mathematical advantages, because...
    • Этот подход принимается, поскольку... - This approach is adopted because...
    • Этот подход требует солидного (обеспечения и т. п.)... - This approach requires a good deal of...
    • Этот фундаментальный подход полезен при решении... - This fundamental approach is useful in solving...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > подход

  • 5 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 6 firme

    adj.
    1 firm.
    2 solid.
    3 resolute.
    ¡firmes! (military) attention!
    4 single-minded, firm.
    5 secure, strong, firm.
    adv.
    hard.
    mantenerse firme en to hold fast to
    se mantuvo firme en su actitud he refused to give way, he stood his ground
    m.
    road surface.
    pres.subj.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) Present Subjunctive of Spanish verb: firmar.
    * * *
    1 (estable) firm, steady
    2 (color) fast
    1 (pavimento) road surface
    1 hard
    \
    de firme hard
    en firme firm
    estar en lo firme to be in the right
    ¡firmes! MILITAR attention!
    mantenerse firme figurado to hold one's ground
    * * *
    adj.
    1) firm
    * * *
    1. ADJ
    1) [mesa, andamio] steady; [terreno] firm, solid
    2) [paso] firm, steady; [voz] firm; [mercado, moneda] steady; [candidato] strong
    3) [amistad, apoyo] firm, strong; [decisión, convicción] firm

    estar en lo firme — † to be in the right

    4) [sentencia] final
    5) (Mil)

    ¡firmes! — attention!

    ponerse firmes — to come o stand to attention

    2.
    ADV hard
    3.
    SM (Aut) road surface

    firme del suelo — (Arquit) rubble base (of floor)

    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) <escalera/silla/mesa> steady

    pisar terreno firme — to be on safe o firm o solid ground

    con paso/pulso firme — with a firm step/steady hand

    de firme — <estudiar/trabajar> hard

    b) ( color) fast
    c) < candidato> strong
    2) (Mil)

    en posición de firmes — standing at o (BrE) to attention

    3)
    a) < persona> firm

    se mantuvo firme — (ante las presiones, el enemigo) she stood her ground

    me mantuve firme en mi postura/idea — I stuck o kept to my position/idea

    b) (delante del n) <creencia/convicción> firm
    II
    masculino road surface
    * * *
    = firm [firmer -comp., firmest -sup.], powerful, sound [sounder -comp., soundest -sup.], strong [stronger -comp., strongest -sup.], uncompromising, steadfast, assertive, adamant, taut [tauter -comp., tautest -sup.], tight [tighter -comp., tightest -sup.], uncompromised, staunch [stanch, -USA], rock solid, unswerving, toned.
    Ex. Full consideration of the above factors should form a firm basis for the design of an effective thesaurus or list of subject headings.
    Ex. Because DOBIS/LIBIS integrates the authority files into the cataloguing process, it provides a unique and very powerful authority file facility.
    Ex. Thus the scheme has a sound organisational backing.
    Ex. In fact, the 1979 index figures show a strong contrast between the hardback and paperback turnovers, with the hardback market being down and the paperback market up.
    Ex. What precipitated that furor was that Panizzi's volume represented a uncompromising rejection of the comfortable ideology of the finding catalog.
    Ex. He does admit, however, that 'this power is unusual, it is a gift which must be cultivated, an accomplishment which can only be acquired by vigorous and steadfast concentration'.
    Ex. I tried to say at the very outset of my remarks that there probably has not been sufficient consumer-like and assertive leverage exerted upon our chief suppliers.
    Ex. The point is that even our most adamant, conservative faculty members are slowly dribbling in and saying, 'Could you add our name to your selective dissemination of information service?'.
    Ex. While the stencil is held taut, the cylinder is slowly rotated until the bottom edge of the wax sheet can be clamped in position.
    Ex. The platen was lashed up tight to the toe of the spindle by cords which connected hooks at its four corners to another set of hooks at the four lower corners of the hose.
    Ex. The Gazette advocated uncompromised racial equality and viewed the migration as a weapon against oppression.
    Ex. This article reviews the work of Professor Kaula, the staunch crusader of librarianship in India.
    Ex. The numbers in the ad, which are quite eye-opening, are rock-solid.
    Ex. His mistaken assumption that cult heroes are supermen, and his unswerving devotion to an empirical testing of the play impose significant limitations on his account.
    Ex. If you are shorter or have very nice toned legs without veins, scars or dark hair, I say take the skirt up a few inches if you want.
    ----
    * adoptar una postura firme ante una cuestión = take + position on + issue.
    * con pie firme = sure-footed.
    * en tierra firme = on dry land.
    * mantener firme = keep + steady, hold in + line, hold + steady.
    * mantenerse firme = stand + Posesivo + ground, stick to + Posesivo + guns.
    * permanecer firm = stay in + place.
    * poco firme = tenuous, rocky [rockier -comp., rockiest -sup.].
    * ponerse firme = stand to + attention.
    * senos firmes y de punta = pert breasts.
    * sobre suelo firme = on firm footing.
    * terreno firme = safe ground, solid ground.
    * tierra firme = solid ground.
    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) <escalera/silla/mesa> steady

    pisar terreno firme — to be on safe o firm o solid ground

    con paso/pulso firme — with a firm step/steady hand

    de firme — <estudiar/trabajar> hard

    b) ( color) fast
    c) < candidato> strong
    2) (Mil)

    en posición de firmes — standing at o (BrE) to attention

    3)
    a) < persona> firm

    se mantuvo firme — (ante las presiones, el enemigo) she stood her ground

    me mantuve firme en mi postura/idea — I stuck o kept to my position/idea

    b) (delante del n) <creencia/convicción> firm
    II
    masculino road surface
    * * *
    = firm [firmer -comp., firmest -sup.], powerful, sound [sounder -comp., soundest -sup.], strong [stronger -comp., strongest -sup.], uncompromising, steadfast, assertive, adamant, taut [tauter -comp., tautest -sup.], tight [tighter -comp., tightest -sup.], uncompromised, staunch [stanch, -USA], rock solid, unswerving, toned.

    Ex: Full consideration of the above factors should form a firm basis for the design of an effective thesaurus or list of subject headings.

    Ex: Because DOBIS/LIBIS integrates the authority files into the cataloguing process, it provides a unique and very powerful authority file facility.
    Ex: Thus the scheme has a sound organisational backing.
    Ex: In fact, the 1979 index figures show a strong contrast between the hardback and paperback turnovers, with the hardback market being down and the paperback market up.
    Ex: What precipitated that furor was that Panizzi's volume represented a uncompromising rejection of the comfortable ideology of the finding catalog.
    Ex: He does admit, however, that 'this power is unusual, it is a gift which must be cultivated, an accomplishment which can only be acquired by vigorous and steadfast concentration'.
    Ex: I tried to say at the very outset of my remarks that there probably has not been sufficient consumer-like and assertive leverage exerted upon our chief suppliers.
    Ex: The point is that even our most adamant, conservative faculty members are slowly dribbling in and saying, 'Could you add our name to your selective dissemination of information service?'.
    Ex: While the stencil is held taut, the cylinder is slowly rotated until the bottom edge of the wax sheet can be clamped in position.
    Ex: The platen was lashed up tight to the toe of the spindle by cords which connected hooks at its four corners to another set of hooks at the four lower corners of the hose.
    Ex: The Gazette advocated uncompromised racial equality and viewed the migration as a weapon against oppression.
    Ex: This article reviews the work of Professor Kaula, the staunch crusader of librarianship in India.
    Ex: The numbers in the ad, which are quite eye-opening, are rock-solid.
    Ex: His mistaken assumption that cult heroes are supermen, and his unswerving devotion to an empirical testing of the play impose significant limitations on his account.
    Ex: If you are shorter or have very nice toned legs without veins, scars or dark hair, I say take the skirt up a few inches if you want.
    * adoptar una postura firme ante una cuestión = take + position on + issue.
    * con pie firme = sure-footed.
    * en tierra firme = on dry land.
    * mantener firme = keep + steady, hold in + line, hold + steady.
    * mantenerse firme = stand + Posesivo + ground, stick to + Posesivo + guns.
    * permanecer firm = stay in + place.
    * poco firme = tenuous, rocky [rockier -comp., rockiest -sup.].
    * ponerse firme = stand to + attention.
    * senos firmes y de punta = pert breasts.
    * sobre suelo firme = on firm footing.
    * terreno firme = safe ground, solid ground.
    * tierra firme = solid ground.

    * * *
    A
    1 ‹escalera/silla/mesa› steady
    edificar sobre terreno firme to build on solid ground
    tenemos que asegurarnos de que pisamos terreno firme we must make sure that we're not treading on dangerous ground
    tener las carnes firmes to have a firm body
    se acercó con paso firme he approached with a determined o firm step
    con pulso firme with a firm o steady hand
    una oferta en firme a firm offer
    un fallo a firme an enforceable o executable judgment
    de firme hard
    estudiar de firme to study hard
    2 (color) fast
    3 ‹candidato› strong
    B ( Mil):
    ¡firmes! attention!
    estaban en posición de firmes they were standing to attention
    C
    1 ‹persona› firm
    tienes que mostrarte más firme con él you have to be firmer with him
    se mantuvo firme she remained firm, she stood her ground, she did not waver
    2 ( delante del n) ‹creencia/convicción› firm
    su firme apoyo a los detenidos their firm support for the prisoners
    D ( Per fam) (excelente) excellent, brilliant ( colloq)
    road surface
    firme deslizante slippery surface
    ( Chi fam)
    la firme the truth
    te diré la firme I'll be honest with you o I'll tell you the truth
    * * *

     

    Del verbo firmar: ( conjugate firmar)

    firmé es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) pretérito indicativo

    firme es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    firmar    
    firme
    firmar ( conjugate firmar) verbo transitivo/intransitivo
    to sign
    firme adjetivo
    1 ‹escalera/silla/mesa› steady;

    con paso/pulso firme with a firm step/steady hand;
    una oferta en firme a firm offer;
    de firme ‹estudiar/trabajar› hard
    2 (Mil):
    ◊ ¡firmes! attention!

    3
    a) ‹ persona› firm;


    me mantuve firme en mi idea I stuck o kept to my idea
    b) ( delante del n) ‹creencia/convicción› firm

    firmar verbo transitivo to sign
    firme
    I adjetivo
    1 firm: se mantuvo firme ante la oposición, she stood firm against the opposition
    II m (pavimento de carretera) road surface
    III adv (con constancia) firm, firmly, hard
    IV excl Mil ¡firmes! attention!
    ♦ Locuciones: de firme, firm, hard
    en firme, definitive
    ' firme' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    hasta
    - inquebrantable
    - plantarse
    - pulso
    - roca
    - terrestre
    - actitud
    - enérgico
    - paso
    - postura
    - propósito
    - tierra
    English:
    adamant
    - assertive
    - deploy
    - exploit
    - fast
    - firm
    - govern
    - hard
    - hold
    - land
    - name
    - secure
    - self-assertion
    - self-assertive
    - shaky
    - shore
    - solid
    - steadfast
    - steady
    - stiff
    - stout
    - strong
    - surface
    - unsteady
    - unwavering
    - wonky
    - attention
    - decisive
    - definite
    - ground
    - intention
    - march
    - sound
    - sure
    - unbending
    - wobbly
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    1. [fuerte, sólido] firm;
    [andamio, construcción] stable; [pulso] steady; [paso] resolute;
    tiene unos principios muy firmes she has very firm principles, she's extremely principled;
    tiene la firme intención de resolver el problema she fully intends to solve the problem, she has every intention of solving the problem;
    llovió de firme durante varias horas it rained hard for several hours
    2. [argumento, base] solid;
    trabaja de firme en el nuevo proyecto she's working full-time on the new project;
    una respuesta en firme a definite answer;
    quedamos en firme para el miércoles we are definitely agreed on Wednesday;
    tenemos un acuerdo en firme para intercambiar información we have a firm agreement to exchange information
    3. [carácter, actitud] resolute;
    hay que mostrarse firme con los empleados you have to be firm with the workers;
    Fam
    poner firme a alguien to bring sb into line
    4. Mil
    ¡firmes! attention!;
    en la posición de firmes standing to attention
    ♦ nm
    road surface;
    firme en mal estado [en letrero] uneven road surface
    ♦ adv
    hard;
    mantenerse firme en to hold fast to;
    se mantuvo firme en su actitud he refused to give way, he stood his ground
    * * *
    I adj
    1 firm; ( estable) steady; ( sólido) solid;
    2 MIL
    :
    ¡ firmes! attention!;
    poner firme a alguien fig fam take a firm line with s.o.
    II m pavement, Br
    road surface
    III adv
    :
    trabajar firme work hard
    * * *
    firme adj
    1) : firm, resolute
    2) : steady, stable
    * * *
    firme1 adj
    1. (estable) steady [comp. steadier; superl. steadiest]
    2. (constante) firm
    firme2 n road surface

    Spanish-English dictionary > firme

  • 7 indiferente

    adj.
    1 indifferent.
    2 unresponsive, apathetic, having little or no interest.
    f. & m.
    indifferent person.
    * * *
    1 indifferent
    \
    me es indiferente I don't care
    * * *
    adj.
    * * *
    ADJ
    1) (=impasible) [actitud, mirada] indifferent

    dejar indiferente a algn: esas imágenes no pueden dejarnos indiferentes — those images cannot fail to move us

    permanecer o quedarse indiferente — to remain indifferent (a, ante to)

    2) (=que da igual)

    -¿desea salir por la mañana o por la tarde? -me es indiferente — "do you want to leave in the morning or the afternoon?" - "it makes no difference to me o I don't mind"

    es indiferente que vengáis hoy o mañana — it makes no difference o it doesn't matter whether you come today or tomorrow

    * * *
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés)

    es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana — it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether it goes today or tomorrow

    ¿té o café? - me es indiferente — tea or coffee? - either

    me es indiferente su amistad — I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    b) ( poco interesado) indifferent

    indiferente al peligro — indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger

    * * *
    = listless, unsympathetic, indifferent, half-hearted [halfhearted], uninterested, regardless, uncaring, unconcerned, detached, impassive, unengaged, apathetic, careless, feckless, insouciant, nonchalant, nonplus, nonplussed [nonplused], soulless, unemotional.
    Ex. Rejuvenation of listless, stagnant, or failing library operations is possible through renewal methods dependent on strengthening the communication function.
    Ex. But of its four sentences, the third was so determined to present a grammatically structured metaphor for its meaning that it dazzled my eye, never mind my already unsympathetic brain.
    Ex. Contrary to popular belief, people who have been deaf from birth are not indifferent to aesthetic literature.
    Ex. Yet the response from government has been half-hearted at best.
    Ex. Other staff of the library remained at best uninterested in the project and at worst resented it as a diminution of traditional library services.
    Ex. What can we do is rethink our query, or we can 'bash on regardless' using the power of the computer to perform lots more searches in the hope that 'something will turn up'.
    Ex. The principal problem which faces archives is that of saving significant material from indiscriminate destruction by ignorant or uncaring owners.
    Ex. Then, with an elfin smile she said: 'You see, I haven't been entirely unconcerned!'.
    Ex. The attention good literature pays to life is both loving and detached.
    Ex. There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex. There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex. In World War 2 librarians generally sympathised with Britain, but many were isolationist or apathetic during the early years = En la Segunda Guerra Mundial los bibliotecarios generalmente simpatizaban con Gran Bretaña, aunque muchos mantuvieron una actitud no intervencionista o indiferente durante los primeros años.
    Ex. They will spend time trying to ascribe reasons to the variations whereas the true facts are that the citer was simply sloppy and careless.
    Ex. The author wrings sick humor from its feckless heroes' forlorn attempts to escape from a drug habit that they do not really enjoy any longer.
    Ex. Adopting an insouciant attitude toward empirical research -- shorn of such seemingly tough-minded concepts as objectivity and transparency -- makes her point more plausible.
    Ex. Certainly the explanation was remarkably in accordance with the nonchalant character of the noble lord who gave it.
    Ex. I remember reading an interview where Boll was nonplus about it, but then days later the site got shut down.
    Ex. Considering all that has happened to them, the cousins were nonplussed.
    Ex. Our deliberate and passionate ambition is to avoid the traps of soulless, dead villages turned into museums, slowly sinking into oblivion.
    Ex. Australian researchers have observed that four to eight year-old boys who have an unemotional temperament are less responsive to discipline.
    ----
    * de un modo indiferente = listlessly.
    * mostrarse indiferente = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.
    * * *
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés)

    es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana — it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether it goes today or tomorrow

    ¿té o café? - me es indiferente — tea or coffee? - either

    me es indiferente su amistad — I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    b) ( poco interesado) indifferent

    indiferente al peligro — indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger

    * * *
    = listless, unsympathetic, indifferent, half-hearted [halfhearted], uninterested, regardless, uncaring, unconcerned, detached, impassive, unengaged, apathetic, careless, feckless, insouciant, nonchalant, nonplus, nonplussed [nonplused], soulless, unemotional.

    Ex: Rejuvenation of listless, stagnant, or failing library operations is possible through renewal methods dependent on strengthening the communication function.

    Ex: But of its four sentences, the third was so determined to present a grammatically structured metaphor for its meaning that it dazzled my eye, never mind my already unsympathetic brain.
    Ex: Contrary to popular belief, people who have been deaf from birth are not indifferent to aesthetic literature.
    Ex: Yet the response from government has been half-hearted at best.
    Ex: Other staff of the library remained at best uninterested in the project and at worst resented it as a diminution of traditional library services.
    Ex: What can we do is rethink our query, or we can 'bash on regardless' using the power of the computer to perform lots more searches in the hope that 'something will turn up'.
    Ex: The principal problem which faces archives is that of saving significant material from indiscriminate destruction by ignorant or uncaring owners.
    Ex: Then, with an elfin smile she said: 'You see, I haven't been entirely unconcerned!'.
    Ex: The attention good literature pays to life is both loving and detached.
    Ex: There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex: There is a commonly-held stereotype which views librarians as being isolated, uninformed, unengaged, impassive, and either uninterested in, or ignorant of, the world around them.
    Ex: In World War 2 librarians generally sympathised with Britain, but many were isolationist or apathetic during the early years = En la Segunda Guerra Mundial los bibliotecarios generalmente simpatizaban con Gran Bretaña, aunque muchos mantuvieron una actitud no intervencionista o indiferente durante los primeros años.
    Ex: They will spend time trying to ascribe reasons to the variations whereas the true facts are that the citer was simply sloppy and careless.
    Ex: The author wrings sick humor from its feckless heroes' forlorn attempts to escape from a drug habit that they do not really enjoy any longer.
    Ex: Adopting an insouciant attitude toward empirical research -- shorn of such seemingly tough-minded concepts as objectivity and transparency -- makes her point more plausible.
    Ex: Certainly the explanation was remarkably in accordance with the nonchalant character of the noble lord who gave it.
    Ex: I remember reading an interview where Boll was nonplus about it, but then days later the site got shut down.
    Ex: Considering all that has happened to them, the cousins were nonplussed.
    Ex: Our deliberate and passionate ambition is to avoid the traps of soulless, dead villages turned into museums, slowly sinking into oblivion.
    Ex: Australian researchers have observed that four to eight year-old boys who have an unemotional temperament are less responsive to discipline.
    * de un modo indiferente = listlessly.
    * mostrarse indiferente = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.

    * * *
    1
    (poco importante, de poco interés): es indiferente que salga hoy o mañana it doesn't matter o it makes no difference o it's immaterial whether it goes today or tomorrow
    ¿té o café? — me es indiferente tea or coffee? — either o I don't mind o it makes no difference
    no me cae mal, me es indiferente I don't dislike her, I don't really have any feelings one way or the other
    todo lo que no sea de su especialidad le es indiferente he's not interested in anything that isn't connected with his speciality
    me es indiferente su amistad I'm not concerned o ( colloq) bothered about his friendship
    2 (poco interesado) indifferent
    se mostró totalmente indiferente ante mi propuesta he was totally indifferent to o uninterested in my suggestion
    indiferente A algo indifferent TO sth
    indiferente al peligro indifferent to o unconcerned about the danger
    permanecieron/se mostraron indiferentes a mis súplicas they remained/they were indifferent to my pleas
    3
    (poco amable, afectuoso): conmigo es fría e indiferente she's cold and distant with me, she treats me coldly and with indifference
    4 (mediocre) indifferent
    * * *

    indiferente adjetivo
    a) (poco importante, de poco interés):

    ◊ es indiferente que venga hoy o mañana it doesn't matter o it makes no difference whether he comes today or tomorrow;

    me es indiferente su amistad I'm not concerned o (colloq) bothered about his friendship

    indiferente a algo indifferent to sth
    indiferente adjetivo
    1 (irrelevante) unimportant: le es indiferente el color, colour makes no difference to her
    2 (impasible) indifferent: es indiferente a mi dolor, he doesn't care about my grief
    ' indiferente' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    fresca
    - fresco
    - igual
    - despreocupado
    - displicente
    - frío
    - resbalar
    English:
    care
    - cold
    - hard
    - indifferent
    - listless
    - lukewarm
    - nonchalant
    - skin
    - unconcerned
    - unemotional
    - uninterested
    - detached
    - uncaring
    - unresponsive
    - unsympathetic
    * * *
    1. [indistinto] indifferent;
    me es indiferente [me da igual] I don't mind, it's all the same to me;
    me es indiferente que vayas o no it's all the same to me whether you go or not;
    ¿prefieres hacerlo hoy o mañana? – me es indiferente would you rather do it today or tomorrow? – I don't mind
    2. [apático]
    siempre se muestra indiferente he always seems so apathetic;
    es indiferente a la miseria ajena other people's suffering means nothing to him;
    no puedo permanecer indiferente ante tanto sufrimiento I cannot remain indifferent in the face of so much suffering;
    su belleza me deja indiferente her beauty leaves me cold o does nothing for me
    * * *
    adj
    1 indifferent
    2 ( irrelevante) immaterial
    * * *
    1) : indifferent, unconcerned
    2)
    ser indiferente : to be of no concern
    me es indiferente: it doesn't matter to me
    * * *
    indiferente adj (persona) indifferent / not interested
    ser indiferente to make no difference / not to matter
    serle indiferente a alguien not to mind / not to care

    Spanish-English dictionary > indiferente

  • 8 ídolo

    m.
    1 idol, graven image, stone figure, icon.
    2 idol, artist with many fans, movie idol, hero.
    * * *
    1 idol
    * * *
    SM idol
    * * *
    masculino idol
    * * *
    = idol, cult figure, cult hero.
    Ex. The problem was that the stiff-necked men of science refused to bow down before the idols of political expediency.
    Ex. In his early years he consciously emulated both the painterly style and persona of the much-admired artist Drouais, who became something of a cult figure in early 19th c. Paris.
    Ex. His mistaken assumption that cult heroes are supermen, and his unswerving devotion to an empirical testing of the play impose significant limitations on his account.
    ----
    * ídolo de masas = crowd-pleaser.
    * * *
    masculino idol
    * * *
    = idol, cult figure, cult hero.

    Ex: The problem was that the stiff-necked men of science refused to bow down before the idols of political expediency.

    Ex: In his early years he consciously emulated both the painterly style and persona of the much-admired artist Drouais, who became something of a cult figure in early 19th c. Paris.
    Ex: His mistaken assumption that cult heroes are supermen, and his unswerving devotion to an empirical testing of the play impose significant limitations on his account.
    * ídolo de masas = crowd-pleaser.

    * * *
    1 ( Relig) idol
    los ídolos de los jóvenes teenage idols o heroes
    * * *

    ídolo sustantivo masculino
    idol
    ídolo sustantivo masculino idol
    un ídolo de la música pop, a pop idol
    ' ídolo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    expectante
    - lipotimia
    English:
    idol
    - cult
    - hero
    * * *
    ídolo nm
    1. [religioso] idol
    2. [persona] idol
    * * *
    idol
    * * *
    ídolo nm
    : idol
    * * *
    ídolo n idol

    Spanish-English dictionary > ídolo

  • 9 решать

    (= решить, находить) solve, resolve, decide upon, determine, conclude
    • Было бы нетрудно решить уравнение (4), если... - Equation (4) would not be difficult to solve if...
    • Данным методом можно решить ряд практически важных задач. - This method enables us to solve several problems of practical importance.
    • Мы могли бы, к примеру, решить, что... - We might, for example, decide that...
    • Мы решили принять более эмпирический подход. - We decided to adopt a more empirical approach.
    • Мы хотим решить уравнение (1) относительно х. - We wish to solve (1) for x.
    • Нам все еще необходимо решить как (действовать и т. п.)... - We have yet to decide how to...
    • Поучительно решить эти уравнения в случае... - It is instructive to work out these equations for the case of...
    • Поучительно решить этот пример, используя... - It is instructive to solve this example by means of...
    • Следовательно, было бы трудно решить, действительно ли... - Thus, it would be difficult to decide whether...
    • Чтобы решить задачу такого типа, мы... - То solve this type of problem, we...
    • Чтобы решить нашу задачу, нам необходимо знать значение... - То solve our problem we need the value of...
    • Эти уравнения могут быть решены последовательно одно за другим. - These equations can be solved successively.
    • Это позволяет избежать необходимости решать, действительно ли... - This avoids the problem of having to decide whether...
    • Это помогает нам решить, действительно ли... - This helps us decide whether...
    • Это уравнение по-прежнему весьма сложно решить, однако... - This equation is still fairly difficult to solve, but...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > решать

  • 10 dato

    m.
    1 piece of information, fact (hecho, cifra).
    datos information, data; (información) data (computing)
    datos (personales) (personal) details
    2 Dato.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: datar.
    * * *
    1 (información) fact, piece of information, datum
    \
    datos personales personal details
    * * *
    noun m.
    fact, piece of information
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=información) piece of information

    un dato interesante — an interesting fact o piece of information

    otro dato que tener en cuenta es... — another thing to bear in mind is...

    datos personales — personal details, particulars

    2) (Mat) datum
    * * *
    a) ( elemento de información) piece of information

    alguien le pasó el dato a la policía — (CS) somebody informed o (colloq) tipped off the police

    darle un dato a alguien — (CS) to give somebody a tip

    b) datos masculino plural (Inf) data (pl), information
    * * *
    = attribute value, data element, data item, datum [data, -pl.], fact, value, piece of information.
    Ex. Others have used possibility distributions for representing fuzzily known or incompletely known attribute values.
    Ex. The Working Group undertook to determine from the data available what data elements should be included for each type of authority.
    Ex. Information is held in files or databases, which are comprise of records, which in turn are comprised of fields or data items, which again may be comprised of subfields or data elements.
    Ex. Thus, having entered the authority datum correctly once, we could be sure that no matter how many bibliographic records used it they would all do so with mechanical consistency.
    Ex. Other data bases, which may be described as non-bibliographic, and are sometimes known as data banks, store actual facts and figures and text.
    Ex. A good initial value for this field will start the system off with a good guess so that claims for missing issues are not unreasonable at the beginning.
    Ex. On other occasions a user wants every document or piece of information on a topic traced, and then high recall must be sought, to the detriment of precision.
    ----
    * alimentar datos = populate.
    * almacenamiento de datos = data storage.
    * añadir datos = make + additions.
    * archivo de datos = database [data base].
    * área de datos específicos de la clase de documento = material (or type of publication) specific details area.
    * área de datos matemáticos = mathematical data area.
    * auditoría de datos = data auditing, data audit.
    * banco de datos = data bank [databank], factual data bank.
    * banco de datos factual = factual data bank.
    * banco de datos terminológico = terminological data bank.
    * basado en los datos = data-driven.
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * base de datos = data bank [databank], database [data base], database software.
    * base de datos automatizada = computer database, computer-held database, computerised database, machine-readable database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica = bibliographic database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica de resúmenes = abstracts based bibliographic database.
    * base de datos catalográfica = catalogue database.
    * base de datos completa = full-provision database.
    * base de datos con información confidencial = intelligence database.
    * base de datos cruzada = cross database.
    * base de datos de acceso mediante suscripción = subscription database.
    * base de datos de autoridades = authority database.
    * base de datos de carburantes = TULSA.
    * base de datos de documentos primarios = source database.
    * base de datos de documentos secundarios = reference database.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * base de datos de educación = ERIC.
    * base de datos de imágenes = image database, image bank.
    * base de datos de investigación = research database.
    * base de datos del gobierno de USA = CRECORD, FEDREG.
    * base de datos de lógica difusa = fuzzy database.
    * base de datos de medicina = MEDLINE.
    * base de datos de negocios = business database.
    * base de datos de pago = subscription database.
    * base de datos de patentes = WPI.
    * base de datos de propiedades = properties database.
    * base de datos de referencia = reference database.
    * base de datos de referencia a especialistas = referral database.
    * base de datos de registros de catálogo = catalogue record database.
    * base de datos de texto = text-oriented database, text database.
    * base de datos de texto completo = full text database.
    * base de datos de texto libre = free text database.
    * base de datos dirigida a un mercado específico = niche database.
    * base de datos distribuida = distributed database.
    * base de datos en CD-ROM = CD-ROM database.
    * base de datos en disco óptico = optical disc database.
    * base de datos en estado original = raw database.
    * base de datos en línea = online database.
    * base de datos estadística = statistical database.
    * base de datos externa = external database.
    * base de datos factual = factual database.
    * base de datos interna = in-house database.
    * base de datos jurídica = legal database.
    * base de datos multimedia = multimedia database.
    * base de datos no bibliográfica = non-bibliographic database.
    * base de datos numérica = numeric database, numerical database.
    * base de datos relacional = relational database.
    * base de datos residente = resident database.
    * base de datos terminológica = terminology database.
    * bloque de datos = data bloc.
    * bloque funcional de datos codificados = coded information block.
    * búfer de datos = data buffer.
    * bus de datos = databus.
    * búsqueda de datos = fact-finding.
    * campo de datos = datafield.
    * capturar datos = capture + data.
    * centro de datos = data centre.
    * codificación de datos = data-coding [data coding].
    * con datos no pertinentes = dirty [dirtier -comp., dirtiest -sup.].
    * conjunto de datos = data set [dataset].
    * contaminación de datos = data contamination.
    * corrupción de datos = data corruption.
    * creación de depósitos de datos = data warehousing.
    * creador de bases de datos = database producer.
    * dar datos de = give + details of.
    * dato concreto = hard fact.
    * datos = data [datum, -sing.], details, figure.
    * datos bibliográficos = bibliographic data, bibliodata.
    * datos biográficos = biodata.
    * datos concretos = specifics, the.
    * datos concretos y reales = hard data.
    * datos de contacto = contact details.
    * datos de entrada = input data.
    * datos de la tarjeta de crédito = credit card details.
    * datos demográficos = demographics.
    * datos desagregados por sexo = gender-disaggregated data.
    * datos empíricos = empirical data.
    * datos en bruto = raw data.
    * datos en estado bruto = raw facts.
    * datos en propiedad = property data.
    * datos erróneos = dirty data.
    * datos estadísticos = statistics, statistical data.
    * datos estadísticos de la biblioteca = library records, library statistics.
    * datos factuales = factual data.
    * datos legibles por máquina = machine-readable data.
    * datos numéricos = numerical data.
    * datos personales = personal details.
    * datos privados = property data.
    * de lectura de datos = data-capture.
    * depósito de datos = data warehouse.
    * depuración de datos = data cleaning.
    * descubrimiento de datos = data mining.
    * descubrimiento de información en las bases de datos = knowledge discovery in databases (KDD).
    * directorio de empresas en base de datos = company directory database.
    * dispositivo de almacenamiento de datos = store.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos = host system.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos en línea = online vendor.
    * EDI (Intercambio Electrónico de Datos) = EDI (Electronic Data Interchange).
    * entrada de datos = data entry, input, inputting.
    * entrada de datos sólo una vez = one-time entry.
    * estructura de datos = data structure.
    * extracción inteligente de datos = data mining.
    * fichero de salida de datos = communication output file.
    * gestión de bases de datos = database management.
    * gestión de datos = data handling.
    * gestor de bases de datos = DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * grupo de datos = data set [dataset].
    * hoja con los datos básicos para Hacer Algo = data sheet [datasheet].
    * hoja de toma de datos = checklist [check-list], data sheet [datasheet].
    * impreso de recogida de datos = enquiry form, inquiry form.
    * industria de las bases de datos = database industry.
    * inserción de datos = input.
    * instrumento de recogida de datos = data collection instrument.
    * introducción de datos utilizando un teclado = keypunching.
    * introducir datos = key + data.
    * introducir datos en el ordenador = input.
    * introducir datos partiendo de cero = enter from + scratch.
    * introductor de datos en un ordenador = inputter.
    * limpieza de datos = data cleaning.
    * lista de datos = fact finder.
    * localización de datos = addressing.
    * manipulación de datos = data manipulation.
    * memoria intermedia de datos = data buffer.
    * memorizar datos = memorise + facts.
    * meta base de datos = meta-database.
    * migración de datos = data migration.
    * minería de datos = data mining.
    * modo de introducción de datos = input mode.
    * montar una base de datos = mount + database.
    * norma de entrada de datos = input standard.
    * operación sobre datos = data manipulation.
    * operario de entrada de datos = data entry operator.
    * paquete de entrada y comprobación de datos = data entry and validation package.
    * pérdida de datos = data loss.
    * personal de proceso de datos = operation staff.
    * preparación de los datos = data preparation.
    * procesamiento de datos = data processing.
    * procesamiento de datos numéricos = number-crunching.
    * proceso de datos = data processing, transaction processing.
    * productor de bases de datos = database producer.
    * programa de gestión de bases de datos = database management software.
    * protección de datos = data protection.
    * prototipo para el proceso de datos = data modelling.
    * proveedor de bases de datos = database provider.
    * recabar datos = solicit + data.
    * recoger datos = collect + data.
    * recoger datos para hacer estadísticas = collect + statistics.
    * recogida de datos = data collection, data gathering [data-gathering], fact-gathering, reporting, data collecting.
    * salida de datos = output.
    * sistema de proceso de datos = data processing system.
    * Sistema Internacional de Datos sobre Publicaciones Seriadas (ISDS) = ISDS (International Serials Data System).
    * suministrar datos = furnish + details.
    * suministro de datos = reporting.
    * tecla de borrado de datos = ERASE INPUT key.
    * tecla de introducción de datos = ENTER key.
    * técnico encargado del proceso de datos = data-processing professional.
    * tiempo de descarga de datos = download time, latency.
    * tráfico de datos de un modo intermitente = bursty traffic.
    * transformación de datos = data transformation.
    * transmisión de datos = data-flow, data transfer, data transmission.
    * tratamiento de datos = transaction processing.
    * unidad de datos = unit of data.
    * verificación de los datos = fact checking.
    * vía de transmisión de datos = data pathway, pathway.
    * * *
    a) ( elemento de información) piece of information

    alguien le pasó el dato a la policía — (CS) somebody informed o (colloq) tipped off the police

    darle un dato a alguien — (CS) to give somebody a tip

    b) datos masculino plural (Inf) data (pl), information
    * * *
    = attribute value, data element, data item, datum [data, -pl.], fact, value, piece of information.

    Ex: Others have used possibility distributions for representing fuzzily known or incompletely known attribute values.

    Ex: The Working Group undertook to determine from the data available what data elements should be included for each type of authority.
    Ex: Information is held in files or databases, which are comprise of records, which in turn are comprised of fields or data items, which again may be comprised of subfields or data elements.
    Ex: Thus, having entered the authority datum correctly once, we could be sure that no matter how many bibliographic records used it they would all do so with mechanical consistency.
    Ex: Other data bases, which may be described as non-bibliographic, and are sometimes known as data banks, store actual facts and figures and text.
    Ex: A good initial value for this field will start the system off with a good guess so that claims for missing issues are not unreasonable at the beginning.
    Ex: On other occasions a user wants every document or piece of information on a topic traced, and then high recall must be sought, to the detriment of precision.
    * alimentar datos = populate.
    * almacenamiento de datos = data storage.
    * añadir datos = make + additions.
    * archivo de datos = database [data base].
    * área de datos específicos de la clase de documento = material (or type of publication) specific details area.
    * área de datos matemáticos = mathematical data area.
    * auditoría de datos = data auditing, data audit.
    * banco de datos = data bank [databank], factual data bank.
    * banco de datos factual = factual data bank.
    * banco de datos terminológico = terminological data bank.
    * basado en los datos = data-driven.
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * base de datos = data bank [databank], database [data base], database software.
    * base de datos automatizada = computer database, computer-held database, computerised database, machine-readable database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica = bibliographic database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica de resúmenes = abstracts based bibliographic database.
    * base de datos catalográfica = catalogue database.
    * base de datos completa = full-provision database.
    * base de datos con información confidencial = intelligence database.
    * base de datos cruzada = cross database.
    * base de datos de acceso mediante suscripción = subscription database.
    * base de datos de autoridades = authority database.
    * base de datos de carburantes = TULSA.
    * base de datos de documentos primarios = source database.
    * base de datos de documentos secundarios = reference database.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * base de datos de educación = ERIC.
    * base de datos de imágenes = image database, image bank.
    * base de datos de investigación = research database.
    * base de datos del gobierno de USA = CRECORD, FEDREG.
    * base de datos de lógica difusa = fuzzy database.
    * base de datos de medicina = MEDLINE.
    * base de datos de negocios = business database.
    * base de datos de pago = subscription database.
    * base de datos de patentes = WPI.
    * base de datos de propiedades = properties database.
    * base de datos de referencia = reference database.
    * base de datos de referencia a especialistas = referral database.
    * base de datos de registros de catálogo = catalogue record database.
    * base de datos de texto = text-oriented database, text database.
    * base de datos de texto completo = full text database.
    * base de datos de texto libre = free text database.
    * base de datos dirigida a un mercado específico = niche database.
    * base de datos distribuida = distributed database.
    * base de datos en CD-ROM = CD-ROM database.
    * base de datos en disco óptico = optical disc database.
    * base de datos en estado original = raw database.
    * base de datos en línea = online database.
    * base de datos estadística = statistical database.
    * base de datos externa = external database.
    * base de datos factual = factual database.
    * base de datos interna = in-house database.
    * base de datos jurídica = legal database.
    * base de datos multimedia = multimedia database.
    * base de datos no bibliográfica = non-bibliographic database.
    * base de datos numérica = numeric database, numerical database.
    * base de datos relacional = relational database.
    * base de datos residente = resident database.
    * base de datos terminológica = terminology database.
    * bloque de datos = data bloc.
    * bloque funcional de datos codificados = coded information block.
    * búfer de datos = data buffer.
    * bus de datos = databus.
    * búsqueda de datos = fact-finding.
    * campo de datos = datafield.
    * capturar datos = capture + data.
    * centro de datos = data centre.
    * codificación de datos = data-coding [data coding].
    * con datos no pertinentes = dirty [dirtier -comp., dirtiest -sup.].
    * conjunto de datos = data set [dataset].
    * contaminación de datos = data contamination.
    * corrupción de datos = data corruption.
    * creación de depósitos de datos = data warehousing.
    * creador de bases de datos = database producer.
    * dar datos de = give + details of.
    * dato concreto = hard fact.
    * datos = data [datum, -sing.], details, figure.
    * datos bibliográficos = bibliographic data, bibliodata.
    * datos biográficos = biodata.
    * datos concretos = specifics, the.
    * datos concretos y reales = hard data.
    * datos de contacto = contact details.
    * datos de entrada = input data.
    * datos de la tarjeta de crédito = credit card details.
    * datos demográficos = demographics.
    * datos desagregados por sexo = gender-disaggregated data.
    * datos empíricos = empirical data.
    * datos en bruto = raw data.
    * datos en estado bruto = raw facts.
    * datos en propiedad = property data.
    * datos erróneos = dirty data.
    * datos estadísticos = statistics, statistical data.
    * datos estadísticos de la biblioteca = library records, library statistics.
    * datos factuales = factual data.
    * datos legibles por máquina = machine-readable data.
    * datos numéricos = numerical data.
    * datos personales = personal details.
    * datos privados = property data.
    * de lectura de datos = data-capture.
    * depósito de datos = data warehouse.
    * depuración de datos = data cleaning.
    * descubrimiento de datos = data mining.
    * descubrimiento de información en las bases de datos = knowledge discovery in databases (KDD).
    * directorio de empresas en base de datos = company directory database.
    * dispositivo de almacenamiento de datos = store.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos = host system.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos en línea = online vendor.
    * EDI (Intercambio Electrónico de Datos) = EDI (Electronic Data Interchange).
    * entrada de datos = data entry, input, inputting.
    * entrada de datos sólo una vez = one-time entry.
    * estructura de datos = data structure.
    * extracción inteligente de datos = data mining.
    * fichero de salida de datos = communication output file.
    * gestión de bases de datos = database management.
    * gestión de datos = data handling.
    * gestor de bases de datos = DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * grupo de datos = data set [dataset].
    * hoja con los datos básicos para Hacer Algo = data sheet [datasheet].
    * hoja de toma de datos = checklist [check-list], data sheet [datasheet].
    * impreso de recogida de datos = enquiry form, inquiry form.
    * industria de las bases de datos = database industry.
    * inserción de datos = input.
    * instrumento de recogida de datos = data collection instrument.
    * introducción de datos utilizando un teclado = keypunching.
    * introducir datos = key + data.
    * introducir datos en el ordenador = input.
    * introducir datos partiendo de cero = enter from + scratch.
    * introductor de datos en un ordenador = inputter.
    * limpieza de datos = data cleaning.
    * lista de datos = fact finder.
    * localización de datos = addressing.
    * manipulación de datos = data manipulation.
    * memoria intermedia de datos = data buffer.
    * memorizar datos = memorise + facts.
    * meta base de datos = meta-database.
    * migración de datos = data migration.
    * minería de datos = data mining.
    * modo de introducción de datos = input mode.
    * montar una base de datos = mount + database.
    * norma de entrada de datos = input standard.
    * operación sobre datos = data manipulation.
    * operario de entrada de datos = data entry operator.
    * paquete de entrada y comprobación de datos = data entry and validation package.
    * pérdida de datos = data loss.
    * personal de proceso de datos = operation staff.
    * preparación de los datos = data preparation.
    * procesamiento de datos = data processing.
    * procesamiento de datos numéricos = number-crunching.
    * proceso de datos = data processing, transaction processing.
    * productor de bases de datos = database producer.
    * programa de gestión de bases de datos = database management software.
    * protección de datos = data protection.
    * prototipo para el proceso de datos = data modelling.
    * proveedor de bases de datos = database provider.
    * recabar datos = solicit + data.
    * recoger datos = collect + data.
    * recoger datos para hacer estadísticas = collect + statistics.
    * recogida de datos = data collection, data gathering [data-gathering], fact-gathering, reporting, data collecting.
    * salida de datos = output.
    * sistema de proceso de datos = data processing system.
    * Sistema Internacional de Datos sobre Publicaciones Seriadas (ISDS) = ISDS (International Serials Data System).
    * suministrar datos = furnish + details.
    * suministro de datos = reporting.
    * tecla de borrado de datos = ERASE INPUT key.
    * tecla de introducción de datos = ENTER key.
    * técnico encargado del proceso de datos = data-processing professional.
    * tiempo de descarga de datos = download time, latency.
    * tráfico de datos de un modo intermitente = bursty traffic.
    * transformación de datos = data transformation.
    * transmisión de datos = data-flow, data transfer, data transmission.
    * tratamiento de datos = transaction processing.
    * unidad de datos = unit of data.
    * verificación de los datos = fact checking.
    * vía de transmisión de datos = data pathway, pathway.

    * * *
    1 (elemento de información) piece of information
    no tengo más datos que el título de la obra the only thing I know about the work is its title, the only information I have about the work is its title
    no dispongo de todos los datos I don't have all the information o details o facts
    alguien le pasó el dato a la policía (CS); somebody informed o ( colloq) tipped off the police
    me han dado un dato muy interesante (CS); I've been given a very interesting piece of information o ( colloq) a hot tip
    te voy a dar un dato, si no lo enchufas no funciona (CS hum); let me give you a tip: it won't work unless you plug it in
    2 datos mpl ( Inf) data (pl), information
    Compuesto:
    mpl particulars (pl), personal details (pl)
    * * *

     

    Del verbo datar: ( conjugate datar)

    dato es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    dató es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    datar    
    dato
    datar ( conjugate datar) verbo intransitivo
    to date;

    data de hace muchos años it goes back many years
    dato sustantivo masculino


    datos personales personal details (pl)
    b)

    ◊ datos sustantivo masculino plural (Inf) data (pl), information

    datar
    I verbo transitivo to date, put a date on
    II verbo intransitivo datar de, to date back to o from: este libro data de la Edad Media, this book dates back to the Middle Ages
    dato sustantivo masculino
    1 piece of information 2 datos, Inform data
    (pormenores) information: no tengo más datos sobre este autor, I don't have any more details about his author
    datos personales, personal details
    La traducción de dato es datum, pero solo se usa en situaciones muy formales. La traducción de datos es data (plural irregular). El singular más común de data es a piece of information.
    ' dato' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    filtrar
    - filtración
    - informativa
    - informativo
    - relevante
    - consignar
    - consultar
    - equivocado
    - falso
    English:
    data
    - information
    - tip
    * * *
    dato nm
    1. [hecho, cifra] piece of information, fact;
    lo que necesitamos son datos concretos what we need is hard facts;
    el alto desempleo es un dato que hay que tener en cuenta the high level of unemployment is a factor which has to be borne in mind;
    datos [información] information, data;
    si no me das más datos, no voy a poderte aconsejar unless you give me more information, I won't be able to advise you;
    el ministerio aún no cuenta con todos los datos the ministry does not yet have all the information at its disposal;
    datos (personales) (personal) details;
    déjenos sus datos y nos pondremos en contacto con usted leave us your details and we will get in touch with you
    datos bancarios bank details;
    datos estadísticos statistical data
    * * *
    m piece of information;
    datos pl information sg, data sg
    * * *
    dato nm
    1) : fact, piece of information
    2) datos nmpl
    : data, information
    * * *
    dato n (información) piece of information

    Spanish-English dictionary > dato

  • 11 Phillips, Edouard

    [br]
    b. 21 May 1821 Paris, France
    d. 14 December 1889 Pouligny-Saint-Martin, France
    [br]
    French engineer and mathematician who achieved isochronous oscillations of a balance by deriving the correct shape for the balance spring.
    [br]
    Phillips was educated in Paris, at the Ecole Polytechnic and the Ecole des Mines. In 1849 he was awarded a doctorate in mathematical sciences by the University of Paris. He had a varied career in industry, academic and government institutions, rising to be Inspector- General of Mines in 1882.
    It was well known that the balance of a watch or chronometer fitted with a simple spiral or helical spring was not isochronous, i.e. the period of the oscillation was not entirely independent of the amplitude. Watch-and chronometer-makers, notably Breguet and Arnold, had devised empirical solutions to the problem by altering the curvature of the end of the balance spring. In 1858 Phillips was encouraged to tackle the problem mathematically, and two years later he published a complete solution for the helical balance spring and a partial solution for the more complex spiral spring. Eleven years later he was able to achieve a complete solution for the spiral spring by altering the curvature of both ends of the spring. Phillips published a series of typical curves that the watch-or chronometer-maker could use to shape the ends of the balance spring.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Académie des Sciences 1868. Chairman, Jury on Mechanics, Universal Exhibition 1889.
    Bibliography
    1861, "Mémoire sur l'application de la Théorie du Spiral Réglant", Annales des Mines 20:1–107.
    1878, Comptes Rendus 86:26–31.
    An English translation (by J.D.Weaver) of both the above papers was published by the Antiquarian Horological Society in 1978 (Monograph No. 15).
    Further Reading
    J.D.Weaver, 1989, "Edouard Phillips: a centenary appreciation", Horological Journal 132: 205–6 (a good short account).
    F.J.Britten, 1978, Britten's Watch and Clock Maker's Handbook, 16th edn, rev. R Good (a description of the practical applications of the balance spring).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Phillips, Edouard

  • 12 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 13 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 14 эмпирическое решение проблемы

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эмпирическое решение проблемы

  • 15 теория

    theory, hypothesis
    • Адекватные экспериментальные подтверждения данной теории отсутствуют. - Adequate empirical support for the theory is lacking.
    • Большая часть данной теории может быть развита в терминах... - A large part of the theory can be developed in terms of...
    • Было выдвинуто много теорий, чтобы объяснить... - Many theories have been advanced to explain...
    • В данной главе мы разовьем теорию... - In this chapter we shall develop the theory of...
    • В данной книге описывается современная теория... - This book describes the modern theory of...
    • В данной приближенной теории предполагается, что... - In the approximate theory it is assumed that...
    • В настоящий момент не существует полностью удовлетворительной теории... - Currently there is no completely satisfactory theory of...
    • Все эти теории имеют общей идею, что... - These theories have in common the idea that...
    • Д-р Смит был основным разработчиком теории... - Dr. Smith has been a key contributor to the theory of...
    • Данная теория могла бы соответственно основываться на... - The theory could accordingly be based on...
    • Данная теория недостаточно разработана, чтобы разрешить... - This theory is not sufficiently advanced to permit...
    • Данная теория также объясняет тот факт, что... - This theory also explains the fact that...
    • (Действительно) последовательная теория должна учитывать (эффект и т. п.). - A comprehensive theory must account for...
    • Детальная теория показывает, что... - Detailed theory shows that...
    • Другим недостатком данной теории является то, что... - The other disadvantage of the theory is that...
    • Если эта теория верна, то... - If this theory is correct, then...
    • К сожалению, как мы увидим, данная теория не предсказывает... - Unfortunately, as we shall see, the theory does not predict...
    • Каждая из этих теорий включает в себя предположения относительно... - Each of these theories involves assumptions about...
    • Мы могли бы продолжить развитие теории... - We could go on to develop a theory of...
    • Наиболее широко принятые современные теории утверждают, что... - The most widely accepted modern theories suggest that...
    • Наилучшим образом проблема исследуется с использованием теории... - The problem is best approached through the theory of...
    • Не было разработано никакой теории, чтобы анализировать... - No theory has been developed to analyze...
    • Обширная часть теории была разработана для... - A vast amount of theory has been developed for...
    • Одна простая теория может использоваться для... - A simple theory can be used to...
    • Одна теория предлагает... - One theory suggests that...
    • Однако данная теория по-прежнему имеет два дефекта. - The theory still suffered from two defects, however.
    • Однако окончательные результаты теории не могут зависеть от... - But the final results of the theory must not depend on...
    • Однако, во-первых, нам необходимо изучить общую теорию... - First, however, we need to study the general theory of...
    • Одним из таких орудий является классическая теория (чего-л). - One such tool is the classical theory of...
    • Перед тем, как оставить общую теорию, было бы желательно... - Before leaving the general theory it may be desirable to...
    • Предыдущая теория легко иллюстрируется (посредством)... - The above theory is easily illustrated by means of...
    • Приведенная выше теория не предсказывает хорошо известный результат, что... - The theory given above does not predict the well-known result that...
    • Приложения данной теории играют жизненно важную роль в... - The applications of this theory play a vital role in...
    • Применение данной теории к частным случаям требует... - The application of the theory to particular cases requires...
    • Работая независимо, Смит [1] развил теорию... - Smith [1], working independently, developed the theory of...
    • Развивая данную теорию, мы будем существенно использовать... - In developing the theory we shall make considerable use of...
    • Развитие подобной теории началось в ранних 1980-х годах работой Смита[1]. - The development of such a theory began in the early 1980s with the work of Smith [1].
    • Развитие этой теории в огромной степени облегчается... - The development of this theory is greatly facilitated by...
    • Следовательно, мы обязаны попытаться развить теорию, которая приводит к... - Hence, we must try to develop a theory that leads to...
    • Согласно теории электромагнетизма... - According to electromagnetic theory,...
    • Существуют несколько способов дать введение в теорию... - There are several ways of introducing the theory of...
    • Такое согласие между теорией и экспериментом вполне удовлетворительно в свете... - The agreement between theory and experiment is quite good in view of..'.
    • Теперь мы приходим к теории... - We now come to the theory of...
    • Подходящая теория может быть развита при использовании... - A satisfactory theory can be developed using...
    • Чтобы получить удовлетворительную теорию, мы обязаны... - То obtain a satisfactory theory it is necessary to...
    • Чтобы отдать предпочтение одной из двух теорий,... - То decide between the two theories...
    • Эта теория может также объяснить... - This theory may also account for...
    • Эти трудности мотивировали формулировку приближенных теорий для описания... - These complications have motivated the formulation of approximate theories to describe...
    • Эти уравнения положены в основу теории... - These equations form the basis of the theory of...
    • Это находится в соответствии с теорией... - This is in accordance with the theory of...
    • Эту сложную теорию трудна объяснить в простых терминах. - This theory is difficult to comprehend in simple terms.
    • Эту теорию можно использовать только когда... - This theory is applicable only when...
    • Явное расхождение между теорией и практикой может быть устранено, если... - The apparent discrepancy between theory and practice can be resolved if...
    • Яркой чертой данной теории является то, что... - A salient feature of the theory is that...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > теория

  • 16 Formal System

       Common to both logical positivism and transformational linguistics is their view of language-as-mathematics. Both focus on language as a system of primitive or elementary units which can be combined according to fixed rules. However useful this analogy may be in certain limited ways, it creates problems in understanding how the purely formal system of elements and rules relates to something other than itself. Both create dualistic systems which oppose formal linguistic competence to empirical components. (Tyler, 1978, pp. 13-14)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Formal System

  • 17 Thinking

       But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)
       I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)
       Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)
       In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)
       Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)
       There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)
       But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)
       It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)
       The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)
       Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)
       What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)
       [E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Thinking

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