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21 counsellor
2 US Sch conseiller/-ère m/f d'éducation ; -
22 educational
educational [‚edʒʊ'keɪʃənəl](programme, system) éducatif; (establishment) d'éducation, d'enseignement; (books, publisher) scolaire; (method, film, visit, TV) éducatif, pédagogique;∎ they talked about rising/falling educational standards ils ont évoqué la hausse/baisse du niveau scolaire;∎ it was very educational c'était très instructif; humorous c'était très édifiant;∎ it was an educational experience/visit c'était une expérience/visite instructive►► educational adviser conseiller(ère) m,f d'orientation;educational age niveau m scolaire;educational channel chaîne f du savoir;educational cruise croisière f culturelle;Educational Institute of Scotland = syndicat écossais d'enseignants;educational qualification diplôme m;Computing educational software logiciel m didactique;American Educational Television chaîne f de télévision éducative et culturelleUn panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > educational
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23 national
national ['næʃənəl]national;∎ the national newspapers la presse nationale;∎ he became a national hero il est devenu un héros national;∎ the country's national sport le sport national du pays;∎ a source of national pride une source de fierté nationale;∎ the killings caused a national outcry les assassinats ont scandalisé le pays;∎ on a national scale à l'échelle nationale;∎ they won 38 percent of the national vote ils ont remporté 38 pour cent des voix sur l'ensemble du pays;∎ it's not in the national interest ce n'est pas dans l'intérêt du pays2 noun∎ all EU nationals tous les ressortissants des pays de l'Union européenne;∎ Irish nationals ressortissants mpl de la République d'Irlande(b) (newspaper) journal m national►► national accounting comptabilité f nationale;national anthem hymne m national;French Canadian national assembly (in Quebec) Assemblée f nationale;British old-fashioned national assistance assistance f publique;American National Association of Colleges and Universities = association des établissements d'enseignement supérieur américains;British the National Audit Office ≃ la Cour des comptes;national bank = banque agréée par le gouvernement américain et qui doit faire partie du système bancaire fédéral;the National Cancer Institute = organisme américain de recherche sur le cancer;the National Childbirth Trust = organisme d'information et d'éducation des jeunes parents en Grande-Bretagne;Australian national code football m australien;American the National Collegiate Athletic Association = association interuniversitaire traitant des questions sportives;American Politics National Convention = grande réunion du parti démocrate ou républicain pour choisir le "ticket" (candidats à la présidence et à la vice-présidence);national costume costume m national;the National Council for Civil Liberties = en Grande-Bretagne, ligue de défense des droits du citoyen luttant contre toute forme de discrimination;the National Council for Vocational Qualifications = organisme britannique responsable de la formation professionnelle;the National Curriculum = programme introduit en 1988 définissant au niveau national (Angleterre et pays de Galles) le contenu de l'enseignement primaire et secondaire;Finance national debt dette f publique, dette f de l'État;national dress costume m national;the National Endowment for the Arts = organisme américain accordant des bourses à des artistes, des musées ou des compagnies théâtrales;the National Endowment for the Humanities = organisme américain accordant des bourses à des écrivains ou à des chercheurs;the National Endowment for Science, Technology and the Arts = organisme indépendant d'aide financière, à partir de fonds provenant de la Loterie nationale, aux artistes, inventeurs et scientifiques;Press National Enquirer = hebdomadaire américain à sensation;British the National Enterprise Board ≃ Agence f nationale pour le développement industriel;British Politics the National Executive Committee = comité chargé de définir la ligne d'action du parti travailliste;the National Exhibition Centre = centre de conférences et d'expositions à Birmingham (Angleterre);National Express ® = société d'autocars reliant les principales villes de Grande-Bretagne;British National Extension College centre m d'enseignement à distance;the National Farmers' Union = syndicat britannique d'exploitants agricoles;the National Film Theatre = cinémathèque à Londres;the National Foundation of the Arts and Humanities = organisme public américain d'aide à l'action culturelle;the National Front = parti d'extrême droite britannique, ≃ le Front national;the National Gallery la National Gallery (principal musée de peinture du Royaume-Uni, situé à Londres);national government gouvernement m de coalition;Finance National Giro = service britannique de chèques postaux;the National Graphical Association = syndicat britannique d'imprimeurs;national grid British Electricity réseau m national d'électricité; Geography réseau m;the National Guard (in the US) la Garde nationale (armée nationale américaine composée de volontaires);National Guardsman membre m de la Garde nationale;the National Health (Service) = système créé en 1946 en Grande-Bretagne et financé par l'État, assurant la gratuité des soins et des services médicaux, ≃ la Sécurité sociale;∎ to get treatment on the National Health (Service) se faire soigner sous le régime de la Sécurité sociale;British National Health Service glasses = modèle de lunettes remboursé par la Sécurité sociale;National Heritage = organisme ayant pour mission la conservation du patrimoine;national hunt (racing) courses fpl d'obstacles;national income revenu m national;British national insurance = système britannique de sécurité sociale (maladie, retraite) et d'assurance chômage;national insurance contributions cotisations fpl à la Sécurité sociale;national insurance number numéro m de Sécurité sociale;American the National Labor Relations Board = organisme américain de conciliation et d'arbitrage des conflits du travail, ≃ conseil m de prud'hommes;Press National Lampoon = revue satirique américaine;National League = l'une des deux ligues professionnelles de base-ball aux États-Unis;the National Lottery = loterie nationale britannique;the National Liberation Front le Front de libération nationale;the National Maritime Museum = musée de la mer situé à Greenwich;National Missile Defence System projet m NMD (programme de défense antimissiles américain);National Organization for Women = organisation de lutte pour les droits de la femme;national park parc m national;the National Portrait Gallery = musée londonien entièrement consacré aux portraits;National Power = entreprise privée de production d'électricité en Angleterre et au pays de Galles;Finance national product produit m national;National Public Radio = réseau américain de stations de radio libres;national readership survey étude f nationale sur le lectorat;the National Rifle Association = association américaine défendant le droit au port d'armes;British National Savings Bank ≃ Caisse f nationale d'épargne;National Savings certificate bon m de caisse d'épargne;Irish national school école f primaire;American the National Science Foundation = organisme d'aide à la recherche scientifique;national security sécurité f nationale;American Politics National Security Adviser = conseiller du président américain sur les questions de sécurité nationale;Politics the National Security Council le Conseil de sécurité nationale;British national service service m militaire;British national serviceman appelé m, militaire m du contingent;national socialism national-socialisme m;1 nounnational-socialiste mfnational-socialiste;the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children = association britannique de protection de l'enfance;Irish national teacher instituteur(trice) m,f;the National Theatre (in London) = important centre dramatique à Londres, siège de la Royal National Theatre Company;American the National Transportation Safety Board = agence du gouvernement américain chargée des questions de sécurité dans le domaine des transports;British the National Trust = organisme non gouvernemental britannique assurant la conservation de certains paysages et monuments historiques;National Trust property ≃ site m protégé;the National Trust for Scotland = organisme non gouvernemental assurant la conservation de certains paysages et monuments historiques écossais;National Vocational Qualification = diplôme britannique professionnel national;the National Weather Service = les services météorologiques américainsⓘ NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE Le "National Health Service" ou "NHS" fut créé par le gouvernement travailliste en 1946, donnant accès à chacun aux soins médicaux gratuits. Cependant, au cours des années 80, le gouvernement de Margaret Thatcher voulut encourager le public à souscrire des assurances médicales privées, et le "NHS" subit des coupes budgétaires importantes. Au cours de ces dernières années, la polémique autour du "National Health Service" s'est intensifiée. Le "NHS" connaît en effet de nombreuses difficultés. -
24 special
special ['speʃəl](a) (exceptional, particular → offer, friend, occasion, ability) spécial; (→ reason, effort, pleasure) particulier;∎ pay special attention to the details faites particulièrement attention aux détails;∎ this is a very special moment for me c'est un moment particulièrement important pour moi;∎ can you do me a special favour? pouvez-vous me rendre un grand service?;∎ I'll do it as a special favour to you je le ferai, mais c'est bien pour toi ou parce que c'est toi;∎ it's a special case c'est un cas particulier ou à part;∎ a special feature of the church is its Gothic belltower le clocher gothique de l'église est l'un de ses traits distinctifs;∎ they put on a special train for the match ils ont prévu un train supplémentaire pour le match;∎ what did you do last night? - nothing special qu'as-tu fait hier soir? - rien de spécial;∎ the food was OK but nothing special la nourriture était assez bonne mais elle n'avait rien d'exceptionnel;∎ I'm going to cook something special for dinner tonight ce soir, je vais cuisiner quelque chose qui sorte de l'ordinaire;∎ what's so special about this car? qu'est-ce que cette voiture a de si extraordinaire?;∎ to get special treatment bénéficier d'un traitement de faveur(b) (specific → need, problem) spécial, particulier; (→ equipment) spécial; (→ adviser) particulier;∎ special characteristic particularité f;∎ you need special permission il vous faut une autorisation spéciale;∎ by special permission of the Lyme museum avec l'aimable autorisation du musée Lyme;∎ she has a special interest in Italian art elle s'intéresse beaucoup à ou porte un intérêt tout particulier à l'art italien;∎ minister with special responsibility for economic development ministre chargé du développement économique;∎ children with special needs enfants ayant des difficultés d'apprentissage∎ this house is very special to me cette maison m'est très chère;∎ you're very special to me je tiens beaucoup à toi;∎ a special relationship des rapports mpl privilégiés;∎ Politics the special relationship = relations d'amitié entre les USA et la Grande-Bretagne;∎ a present for a special person un cadeau pour un être cher;∎ for someone special (on card) pour quelqu'un qui m'est cher2 noun∎ they put on a football/holiday special ils ont mis un train/car supplémentaire pour le match de football/les départs en vacances(b) (in restaurant) spécialité f;∎ the chef's/the house special la spécialité du chef/de la maison;∎ today's special le plat du jour(c) Television émission f spéciale; Journalism (issue) numéro m spécial; (feature) article m spécial;∎ they brought out a special on the war ils ont sorti un numéro spécial sur la guerre∎ sugar is on special today le sucre est en promotion aujourd'hui►► special agent (spy etc) agent m secret;Special Air Service = commando d'intervention spéciale de l'armée britannique;Special Branch = service de police britannique chargé des crimes contre la sûreté de l'État, ≃ Renseignements mpl généraux;British special constable auxiliaire mf de police;Journalism special correspondent envoyé(e) m,f spécial(e);special delivery = service postal britannique garantissant la distribution du courrier sous 24 heures;∎ to send sth special delivery envoyer qch en exprès;Finance special drawing rights droits mpl de tirage spéciaux;special education enseignement m spécialisé;Cinema & Television special effects effets mpl spéciaux;Computing special interest group groupe m d'intérêt;special interest holidays vacances fpl à thème;British special licence dispense f de bans;∎ to be married by special licence se marier avec dispense de bans;special offer promotion f;∎ to be on special offer être en promotion;Politics special powers pouvoirs mpl extraordinaires;British special school établissement m d'enseignement spécialisé (pour enfants handicapés ou inadaptés);Typography special sort caractère m spécialⓘ SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP Les liens étroits qu'entretiennent la Grande-Bretagne et les États-Unis depuis l'époque coloniale, tant sur le plan culturel que sur le plan diplomatique, sont souvent désignés par l'expression "the special relationship" ("la relation privilégiée"). Par ailleurs, les liens forgés entre les deux pays à l'occasion des deux guerres mondiales et durant toute la guerre froide ont fait de la Grande-Bretagne l'allié privilégié de la super-puissance américaine. La "special relationship" connut son apogée durant les années 80, qui virent Margaret Thatcher adopter une politique résolument pro-américaine, au détriment des liens avec les partenaires européens de la Grande-Bretagne. Aujourd'hui, certains critiques reprochent au personnel politique britannique de s'aligner systématiquement sur Washington en matière de politique extérieure au nom de la "special relationship". -
25 Eccles, William Henry
[br]b. 23 August 1875 Ulverston, Cumbria, Englandd. 27 April 1966 Oxford, England[br]English physicist who made important contributions to the development of radio communications.[br]After early education at home and at private school, Eccles won a scholarship to the Royal College of Science (now Imperial College), London, where he gained a First Class BSc in physics in 1898. He then worked as a demonstrator at the college and studied coherers, for which he obtained a DSc in 1901. Increasingly interested in electrical engineering, he joined the Marconi Company in 1899 to work on oscillators at the Poole experimental radio station, but in 1904 he returned to academic life as Professor of Mathematics and Physics and Department Head at South West Polytechnic, Chelsea. There he discovered ways of using the negative resistance of galena-crystal detectors to generate oscillations and gave a mathematical description of the operation of the triode valve. In 1910 he became Reader in Engineering at University College, London, where he published a paper explaining the reflection of radio waves by the ionosphere and designed a 60 MHz short-wave transmitter. From 1916 to 1926 he was Professor of Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering at the Finsbury City \& Guilds College and a private consulting engineer. During the First World War he was a military scientific adviser and Secretary to the Joint Board of Scientific Societies. After the war he made many contributions to electronic-circuit development, many of them (including the Eccles-Jordan "flip-flop" patented in 1918 and used in binary counters) in conjunction with F.W.Jordan, about whom little seems to be known. Illness forced Eccles's premature academic retirement in 1926, but he remained active as a consultant for many years.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1921. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1926–7. President, Physical Society 1929. President, Radio Society of Great Britain.Bibliography1912, "On the diurnal variation of the electric waves occurring in nature and on the propagation of electric waves round the bend of the earth", Proceedings of the Royal Society 87:79. 1919, with F.W.Jordan, "Method of using two triode valves in parallel for generating oscillations", Electrician 299:3.1915, Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy.1921, Continuous Wave Wireless Telegraphy.Further Reading1971, "William Henry Eccles, 1875–1966", Biographical Memoirs of the Royal Society, London, 17.KF -
26 Pupin, Michael Idvorsky
SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology[br]b. 4 October 1858 Idvor, Banat, Serbiad. 12 March 1935 New York, USA[br]Serbian/American applied physicist involved in the development of fluoroscopy and radiological diagnosis.[br]Pupin's early education was in Prague and then he emigrated alone to America in 1874. After five years of farm and factory jobs accompanied by night study, he gained admission to Columbia University, New York, in 1879. He graduated in 1883 and after a period at Cambridge University, England, worked under Helmholtz in Berlin. He received his doctorate in 1889.He returned to Columbia and, apart from his involvement in X-ray diagnosis in 1896, was engaged in practical work in connection with problems in telegraphy and telephony, radio transmitters and electrical network theory. In 1901 he was appointed Professor of Electromechanics, a post that he held for thirty years. He acted as an adviser on behalf of Yugoslavia at the 1919 Peace Conference.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsMember of the National Academy of Sciences. Pulitzer Prize.Bibliography1896, "A few remarks on experiments with roentgen rays", Electricity, New York. 1924, From Immigrant to Inventor (autobiography).1938, Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.MGBiographical history of technology > Pupin, Michael Idvorsky
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27 Skinner, Halcyon
[br]b. 6 March 1824 Mantua, Ohio, USAd. 28 November 1900 USA[br]American inventor of a machine for making Royal Axminster and other carpets.[br]Halcyon was the son of Joseph and Susan Skinner. When he was 8 years old, his parents moved to Stockbridge in Massachusetts, where he obtained education locally and worked on farms. In 1838 his father moved to West Farms, New York, where Halcyon helped his father make violins and guitars for seven years. He then worked as a general carpenter for eight years until he was hired in 1849 by Alexander Smith, a carpet manufacturer. Skinner designed and constructed a hand loom that could weave figured instead of striped carpets, and by 1851 Smith had one hundred of these at work. Skinner was retained by Smith for forty years as a mechanical expert and adviser.Weaving carpets by power started in the 1850s on enormous and complex machines. Axminster carpets had traditionally been produced in a similar way to those made by hand in Persia, with the tufts of woollen yarn being knotted around vertical warp threads. To mechanize this process proved very difficult, but Skinner patented a loom in 1856 to weave Axminster carpets although, it was not working successfully until 1860. Then in 1864 he developed a loom for weaving ingrain carpets, and c. 1870 he altered some imported English looms for weaving tapestry carpets to double their output.His most important invention was conceived in 1876 and patented on 16 January 1877. This was the Moquette or Royal Axminster loom, which marked yet another important step forward and enabled the use of an unlimited number of colours in carpet designs. This type of loom became known as the Spool Axminster because of the endless chain of spools carrying lengths of coloured yarns, wound in a predetermined order, from which short pieces could be cut and inserted as the tufts. It put Smith's company, Alexander Smith \& Sons, Yonkers, New York, in the lead among American carpet manufacturers. This type of loom was introduced to Britain in 1878 by Tomkinson \& Adam and spread rapidly. Skinner virtually retired in 1889 but continued to live in Yonkers.[br]Further ReadingBiography, American Machinist 23.Dictionary of American Biography, Vol. XVII.G.Robinson, 1966, Carpets, London (for the history and techniques of carpet weaving).A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London (includes a section on pile weaving which covers some types of carpets).RLH -
28 Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
[br]b. 26 June 1824 Belfast, Ireland (now Northern Ireland)d. 17 December 1907 Largs, Scotland[br]Irish physicist and inventor who contributed to submarine telegraphy and instrumentation.[br]After education at Glasgow University and Peterhouse, Cambridge, a period of study in France gave Thomson an interest in experimental work and instrumentation. He became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow in 1846 and retained the position for the rest of his career, establishing the first teaching laboratory in Britain.Among his many contributions to science and engineering was his concept, introduced in 1848, of an "absolute" zero of temperature. Following on from the work of Joule, his investigations into the nature of heat led to the first successful liquefaction of gases such as hydrogen and helium, and later to the science of low-temperature physics.Cable telegraphy gave an impetus to the scientific measurement of electrical quantities, and for many years Thomson was a member of the British Association Committee formed in 1861 to consider electrical standards and to develop units; these are still in use. Thomson first became Scientific Adviser to the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1857, sailing on the Agamemnon and Great Eastern during the cable-laying expeditions. He invented a mirror galvanometer and more importantly the siphon recorder, which, used as a very sensitive telegraph receiver, provided a permanent record of signals. He also laid down the design parameters of long submarine cables and discovered that the conductivity of copper was greatly affected by its purity. A major part of the success of the Atlantic cable in 1866 was due to Thomson, who received a knighthood for his contribution.Other instruments he designed included a quadrant electrostatic voltmeter to measure high voltages, and his "multi-cellular" instrument for low voltages. They could be used on alternating or direct current and were free from temperature errors. His balances for precision current measurement were widely used in standardizing laboratories.Thomson was a prolific writer of scientific papers on subjects across the whole spectrum of physics; between 1855 and 1866 he published some 110 papers, with a total during his life of over 600. In 1892 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kelvin of Largs. By the time of his death he was looked upon as the "father" of British physics, but despite his outstanding achievements his later years were spent resisting change and progress.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1866. Created Lord Kelvin of Largs 1892. FRS 1851. President, Royal Society 1890–4. An original member of the Order of Merit 1902. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers 1874. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1889 and 1907. Royal Society Royal Medal 1856, Copley Medal 1883.Bibliography1872, Reprints of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, London; 1911, Mathematical and Physical Papers, 6 vols, Cambridge (collections of Thomson's papers).Further ReadingSilvanus P.Thompson, 1910, The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, 2 vols, London (an uncritical biography).D.B.Wilson, 1987, Kelvin and Stokes: A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics, Bristol (provides a present-day commentary on all aspects of Thomson's work).J.G.Crowther, 1962, British Scientists of the 19th Century, London, pp. 199–257 (a short critical biography).GWBiographical history of technology > Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
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29 Watson, George Lennox
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]b. 1851 Glasgow, Scotlandd. 12 November 1904 Glasgow, Scotland[br]Scottish designer of some of the world's largest sailing and powered yachts, principal technical adviser to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution.[br]Almost all of Watson's life was spent in or around the City of Glasgow; his formal education was at the city's High School and at the age of 16 he entered the yard and drawing offices of Robert Napier's Govan Shipyard. Three years later he crossed the River Clyde and started work in the design office of the Pointhouse Shipyard of A. \& J.Inglis, and there received the necessary grounding of a naval architect. Dr John Inglis, the Principal of the firm, encouraged Watson, ensured that he was involved in advanced design work and allowed him to build a yacht in a corner of the shipyard in his spare time.At the early age of 22 Watson set up as a naval architect with his own company, which is still in existence 120 years later. In 1875, assisted by two carpenters, Watson built the 5-ton yacht Vril to his own design. This vessel was the first with an integral heavy lead keel and its success ensured that design contracts flowed to him for new yachts for the Clyde and elsewhere. His enthusiasm and increasing skill were recognized and soon he was working on the ultimate: the America's Cup challengers Thistle, Valkyrie II, Valkyrie III and Shamrock II. The greatest accolade was the contract for the design of the J Class yacht Britannia, built by D. \& W.Henderson of Glasgow in 1893 for the Prince of Wales.The company of G.L.Watson became the world's leading designer of steam yachts, and it was usual for it to offer a full design service as well as supervise construction in any part of the world. Watson took a deep interest in the work of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution and was its technical consultant for many years. One of his designs, the Watson Lifeboat, was a stalwart in its fleet for many years. In public life he lectured, took an active part in the debates on yacht racing and was recognized as Britain's leading designer.[br]Bibliography1881, Progress in Yachting and Yacht-Building, Glasgow Naval and Marine Engineering Catalogue, London and Glasgow: Collins.1894, The Evolution of the Modern Racing Yacht, Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes, Vol. 1, London: Longmans Green, pp. 54–109.Further ReadingJohn Irving, 1937, The King's Britannia. The Story of a Great Ship, London: Seeley Service.FMW -
30 Wilson, Percy
[br]b. 8 March 1893 Halifax, Yorkshire, Englandd. May 1977[br]English engineer and technical writer who developed geometries for pick-arms and reproducing horns.[br]He graduated from The Queen's College with a BA in 1915 and an MA in 1918. He was an instructor and lecturer in the Royal Navy in 1915–19. He became an administrative officer with the Board of Education until 1938, and continued his work in the British Civil Service in the Ministry of Transport until 1949. From 1924 to 1938 he was Technical Adviser, and from 1953 Technical Editor, with Gramophone, a publication catering for the record-and equipment-buying public. He brought a mathematical mind to the problems of gramophone reproduction and solved the geometrical problem of obtaining a reasonable approximation to tangential tracking across the surface of a record even though the soundbox (or pick-up) is carried by a pivoted arm. Later he tackled the problem of horns, determining that a modified exponential horn, even with a bent axis, would give optimal reproduction by a purely acoustic system. This development was used commercially during the 1930s. Wilson was for a time a member of the School Broadcasting Council and developed methods for improving subjective listening tests for evaluation of audio equipment. He was also deeply involved in the long-playing record system used for Talking Books for the Blind. He had a life-long interest in spiritualist matters and was President of the Spiritualist National Union from 1950 to 1953 and Chairman of the Psychic Press from 1951.[br]Bibliography1929, with G.W.Webb, Modern Gramophones and Electrical Reproducers, London: Cassell (the first book to draw the consequences of the recent development of electronic filter theory for the interpretation of record wear).Further ReadingG.A.Briggs (ed.), 1961, Audio Biographies, Wharfedale Wireless Works, pp. 326–34.GB-N
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