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41 Breuer, Marcel Lajos
[br]b. 22 May 1902 Pécs, Hungaryd. 1 July 1981 New York (?), USA[br]Hungarian member of the European Bauhaus generation in the 1920s, who went on to become a leader in the modern school of architectural and furniture design in Europe and the United States.[br]Breuer began his student days following an art course in Vienna, but joined the Bauhaus at Weimar, where he later graduated, in 1920. When Gropius re-established the school in purpose-built structures at Dessau, Breuer became a member of the teaching staff in charge of the carpentry and furniture workshops. Much of his time there was spent in design and research into new materials being applied to furniture and interior decoration. The essence of his contribution was to relate the design of furniture to industrial production; in this field he developed the tubular-steel structure, especially in chair design, and experimented with aluminium as a furniture material as well as pieces of furniture made up from modular units. His furniture style was characterized by an elegance of line and a careful avoidance of superfluous detail. By 1926 he had furnished the Bauhaus with such furniture in chromium-plated steel, and two years later had developed a cantilevered chair.Breuer left the Bauhaus in 1928 and set up an architectural practice in Berlin. In the early 1930s he also spent some time in Switzerland. Notable from these years was his Harnischmacher Haus in Wiesbaden and his apartment buildings in the Dolderthal area of Zurich. His architectural work was at first influenced by constructivism, and then by that of Le Corbusier (see Charles-Edouard Jeanneret). In 1935 he moved to England, where in partnership with F.R.S. Yorke he built some houses and continued to practise furniture design. The Isokon Furniture Co. commissioned him to develop ideas that took advantage of the new bending and moulding processes in laminated wood, one result being his much-copied reclining chair.In 1937, like so many of the European architectural refugees from Nazism, he found himself under-occupied due to the reluctance of English clients to embrace the modern architectural movement. He went to the United States at Gropius's invitation to join him as a professor at Harvard. Breuer and Gropius were influential in training a new generation of American architects, and in particular they built a number of houses. This partnership ended in 1941 and Breuer set up practice in New York. His style of work from this time on was still modern, but became more varied. In housing, he adapted his style to American needs and used local materials in a functional manner. In the Whitney Museum (1966) he worked in a sculptural, granite-clad style. Often he utilized a bold reinforced-concrete form, as in his collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss in the Paris UNESCO Building (1953–8) and the US Embassy in the Hague (1954–8). He displayed his masterly handling of poured concrete used in a strikingly expressionistic, sculptural manner in his St John's Abbey (1953–61) in Collegeville, Minnesota, and in 1973 his Church of St Francis de Sale in Michigan won him the top award of the American Institute of Architects.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAmerican Institute of Architects Medal of Honour 1964, Gold Medal 1968. Jefferson Foundation Medal 1968.Bibliography1955, Sun and Shadow, the Philosophy of an Architect, New York: Dodd Read (autobiography).Further ReadingC.Jones (ed.), 1963, Marcel Breuer: Buildings and Projects 1921–1961, New York: Praeger.T.Papachristou (ed.), 1970, Marcel Breuer: New Buildings and Projects 1960–1970, New York: Praeger.DY -
42 Gillette, King Camp
[br]b. 5 January 1855 Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, USAd. 9 July 1932 Los Angeles, California, USA[br]American inventor and manufacturer, inventor of the safety razor.[br]Gillette's formal education in Chicago was brought to an end when a disastrous fire destroyed all his father's possessions. Forced to fend for himself, he worked first in the hardware trade in Chicago and New York, then as a travelling salesman. Gillette inherited the family talent for invention, but found that his successful inventions barely paid for those that failed. He was advised by a previous employer, William Painter (inventor of the Crown Cork), to look around for something that could be used widely and then thrown away. In 1895 he succeeded in following that advice of inventing something which people could use and then throw away, so that they would keep coming back for more. An idea came to him while he was honing an old-fashioned razor one morning; he was struck by the fact that only a short piece of the whole length of a cutthroat razor is actually used for shaving, as well as by the potentially dangerous nature of the implement. He "rushed out to purchase some pieces of brass, some steel ribbon used for clock springs, a small hand vise and some files". He thought of using a thin steel blade sharpened on each side, placed between two plates and held firmly together by a handle. Though coming from a family of inventors, Gillette had no formal technical education and was entirely ignorant of metallurgy. For six years he sought a way of making a cheap blade from sheet steel that could be hardened, tempered and sharpened to a keen edge.Gillette eventually found financial supporters: Henry Sachs, a Boston lamp manufacturer; his brother-in-law Jacob Heilbron; and William Nickerson, who had a considerable talent for invention. By skilled trial and error rather than expert metallurgical knowledge, Nickerson devised ways of forming and sharpening the blades, and it was these that brought commercial success. In 1901, the American Safety Razor Company, later to be renamed the Gillette Safety Razor Company, was set up. When it started production in 1903 the company was badly in debt, and managed to sell only fifty-one razors and 168 blades; but by the end of the following year, 90,000 razors and 12.4 million blades had been sold. A sound invention coupled with shrewd promotion ensured further success, and eight plants manufacturing safety razors were established in various parts of the world. Gillette's business experiences led him into the realms of social theory about the way society should be organized. He formulated his views in a series of books published over the years 1894 to 1910. He believed that competition led to a waste of up to 90 per cent of human effort and that want and crime would be eliminated by substituting a giant trust to plan production centrally. Unfortunately, the public in America, or anywhere else for that matter, were not ready for this form of Utopia; no omniscient planners were available, and human wants and needs were too various to be supplied by a single agency. Even so, some of his ideas have found favour: air conditioning and government provision of work for the unemployed. Gillette made a fortune from his invention and retired from active participation in the business in 1913, although he remained President until 1931 and Director until his death.[br]Bibliography"Origin of the Gillette razor", Gillette Blade (February/March).Further ReadingObituary, 1932, New York Times (11 July).J.Jewkes, D.Sawers and R.Stillerman, 1958, The Sources of Invention, London: Macmillan.LRD / IMcN -
43 городское водоснабжение
городское водоснабжение
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[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
urban water supply
The distribution of water, including collection, treatment and storage, for use in a town, city or municipal area, and used generally for domestic and industrial needs. (Source: WWC)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
EN
DE
FR
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > городское водоснабжение
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44 צריךְ
צְרִיךְm., צְרִיכָא I f. = h צָרִיךְ. Targ. 1 Chr. 28:12. Targ. O. Gen. 16:12. Targ. Is. 53:2; a. fr.Taan.20b כל מאן דצ׳וכ׳ whosoever is in need, let him come and eat. Ib. כל דצ׳ ליתיוכ׳ let whoever needs (to wash his hands) enter ; a. fr. צריכא a) (in Y.) it is doubtful, v. צָרִיךְ. Y.Gitt.IV, 46a, v. אפרכוריס. Y.Ned.V, end, 54b תמן צ׳ ליהוכ׳ there it was doubtful to him, and here, v. פְּשִׁיטָא; a. fr.b) ( it is) necessary to state it. Ber.21a sq. וצ׳ דאי אשמעינן אימא לא׃ צ׳ and it was necessary (to teach both cases), for, if we had been taught only the first case, we might have thought …, and if we had been taught only the second case, we might have thought …: hence it was necessary. Pes.21a למה לי למיתנא … צ׳ דאי … צ׳ why was it necessary to say ‘domestic animals and ‘beasts of chase? It was necessary, for if …: hence it was necessary.לא צריכא ד׳ (sub. אלא) it would not have been necessary but for. Taan.20b לא צ׳ דנפלווכ׳ it would not have been necessary to use the double expression ‘ruinous and ‘liable to fall, were it not for the sake of intimating a case like that of walls which have fallen in consequence of their height, or which stand on the edga of a river. Yoma 83b פשיטא לא צ׳ בשבת is it not self-evident? It was necessary to state it for the eventuality of its being on the Sabbath. B. Mets.30b לא צ׳ דהוהוכ׳ it means a case, when he saw the animal pasturing ; a. v. fr.Pl. צְרִיכִין, צְרִיכֵי; צְרִיכָן. Targ. Y. Lev. 23:42. Targ. 2 Sam. 21:4; a. fr.B. Mets.31a עומרין דצ׳ לארעא sheaves which need the ground (whereon they lie to ripen). Ib. צ׳ דאיוכ׳ all these three passages are necessary, for if Pes.23a וצ׳ and both clauses are necessary; a. fr. -
45 צְרִיךְ
צְרִיךְm., צְרִיכָא I f. = h צָרִיךְ. Targ. 1 Chr. 28:12. Targ. O. Gen. 16:12. Targ. Is. 53:2; a. fr.Taan.20b כל מאן דצ׳וכ׳ whosoever is in need, let him come and eat. Ib. כל דצ׳ ליתיוכ׳ let whoever needs (to wash his hands) enter ; a. fr. צריכא a) (in Y.) it is doubtful, v. צָרִיךְ. Y.Gitt.IV, 46a, v. אפרכוריס. Y.Ned.V, end, 54b תמן צ׳ ליהוכ׳ there it was doubtful to him, and here, v. פְּשִׁיטָא; a. fr.b) ( it is) necessary to state it. Ber.21a sq. וצ׳ דאי אשמעינן אימא לא׃ צ׳ and it was necessary (to teach both cases), for, if we had been taught only the first case, we might have thought …, and if we had been taught only the second case, we might have thought …: hence it was necessary. Pes.21a למה לי למיתנא … צ׳ דאי … צ׳ why was it necessary to say ‘domestic animals and ‘beasts of chase? It was necessary, for if …: hence it was necessary.לא צריכא ד׳ (sub. אלא) it would not have been necessary but for. Taan.20b לא צ׳ דנפלווכ׳ it would not have been necessary to use the double expression ‘ruinous and ‘liable to fall, were it not for the sake of intimating a case like that of walls which have fallen in consequence of their height, or which stand on the edga of a river. Yoma 83b פשיטא לא צ׳ בשבת is it not self-evident? It was necessary to state it for the eventuality of its being on the Sabbath. B. Mets.30b לא צ׳ דהוהוכ׳ it means a case, when he saw the animal pasturing ; a. v. fr.Pl. צְרִיכִין, צְרִיכֵי; צְרִיכָן. Targ. Y. Lev. 23:42. Targ. 2 Sam. 21:4; a. fr.B. Mets.31a עומרין דצ׳ לארעא sheaves which need the ground (whereon they lie to ripen). Ib. צ׳ דאיוכ׳ all these three passages are necessary, for if Pes.23a וצ׳ and both clauses are necessary; a. fr.
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