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41 US pensions system
страх., эк. тр., амер. пенсионная система США (состоит из государственного пенсионного обеспечения, традиционных частных пенсий, накопительных вкладов по месту работы, индивидуальных пенсионных вкладов, государственных пособий (социальной пенсии) для лиц, вообще не работавших, не достигших какого-л. нетрудоспособного возраста)See:state pension, Social Security, FICA tax, Federal Insurance Contributions Act, hospital insurance, Social Security Administration, Social Security benefit, social security card, social security number, average indexed monthly earnings, primary insurance amount, Medicare, deferred compensation plan, private pension plan, individual retirement account, 401(k) plan, 403(b) plan, supplemental security income, food stamp, 30-and-out pension, Economic Recovery Tax Act, Employee Benefits Security Administration, Employee Retirement Income Security Act, employee stock ownership plan, Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board, Keogh plan, National Retired Teachers Association, qualified pension plan, non-qualified pension plan, Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, productive ageing, Railroad Retirement Act, Railroad Retirement Board, retirement account, retirement officer, Retirement Protection Act, rule of 45, salary reduction agreement, salary reduction plan, self-directed IRA, self-employed pension, self-employed retirement plan, simplified employee pension plan, Social Security Act 1935, tax deferment -
42 graph
nounграф mbinding number of а graph число m связности графаcircumference of а graph окружность f графаgenus of а graph род m графаgraph coloring раскраска f графаgraph rewrite system система f переписи графовjoin of graphs соединение m графовlabelling of а graph разметка f графаniche graph граф-ниша fАнглийский-русский словарь по теории вероятностей, статистике и комбинаторике > graph
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43 upward
['ʌpwəd] 1.aggettivo [glance, push, movement] verso l'alto, in su; [path, road] in salita, che sale2.an upward trend — econ. una tendenza al rialzo
* * *adjective (going up or directed up: They took the upward path; an upward glance.) in alto, verso l'alto* * *upward (1) /ˈʌpwəd/a.2 in aumento; in crescita: Inflation has been on an upward trend over the past two years, l'inflazione è stata in crescita negli ultimi due anni; The latest figures show an upward movement in the number of violent crimes, le ultime cifre mostrano un andamento in crescita dei crimini violenti● (comput.) upward compatible software, software compatibile verso l'alto ( con le versioni più aggiornate) □ (econ., fin.) upward drift, tendenza al rialzo □ upward gradient, salita; rampa □ upward mobility, tendenza a elevarsi socialmente o economicamente; mobilità (sociale) verso l'alto □ ( Borsa) upward move, mossa al rialzo □ (econ.) upward phase, fase d'espansione □ (fig.) an upward slope, una crescita.upward (2) /ˈʌpwəd/, upwards /ˈʌpwədz/avv.1 all'insù; verso l'alto; in su: to move upward, spostarsi verso l'alto, salire; (fig.) far progressi; to look upward, guardare in su; guardare in alto● upward of, più di: upward of thirty men, più di trenta uomini □ and upward, e più; e oltre: boys of six years and upward, ragazzi di sei anni e oltre (o dai sei anni in su) □ bottom upward, sottosopra; capovolto □ (fig.) to climb upward, progredire; far carriera.* * *['ʌpwəd] 1.aggettivo [glance, push, movement] verso l'alto, in su; [path, road] in salita, che sale2.an upward trend — econ. una tendenza al rialzo
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44 editing
- clean-up editing
- computer editing
- context editing
- data editing
- input editing
- keyboard editing
- line-number editing
- linenumber editing
- linkage editing
- modeless editing
- off-line editing
- on-line editing
- post editing
- screen editing
- syntax-directed editing
- video editingEnglish-Russian dictionary of computer science and programming > editing
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45 designation
назначение ( на должность) ; обозначение, название; целеуказание— IR target designation— laser target designation -
46 system
система; комплекс; средство; способ; метод; сеть (напр. дорог) ;aiming-navigation system (analog, digital) — прицельно-навигационная система (аналоговая, цифровая)
air observation, acquisition and fire control system — (бортовая) система воздушной разведки, засечки целей и управления огнем
air support aircraft ECM (equipment) system — (бортовая) система РЭП для самолетов авиационной поддержки
airborne (ground) target acquisition and illumination laser system — ав. бортовая лазерная система обнаружения и подсветки (наземных) целей
airborne (ground) targeting and laser designator system — ав. бортовая лазерная система обнаружения и целеуказания (наземных целей)
airborne laser illumination, ranging and tracking system — ав. бортовая система лазерной подсветки, определения дальности и сопровождения цели
artillery (nuclear) delivery system — артиллерийская система доставки (ядерного) боеприпаса (к цели)
C2 system — система оперативного управления; система руководства и управления
C3 system — система руководства, управления и связи; система оперативного управления и связи
channel and message switching (automatic) communications system — АСС с коммутацией каналов и сообщений
country-fair type rotation system (of instruction) — метод одновременного обучения [опроса] нескольких учебных групп (переходящих от одного объекта изучения к другому)
dual-capable (conventional/nuclear) weapon delivery system — система доставки (обычного или ядерного) боеприпаса к цели
electromagnetic emitters identification, location and suppression system — система обнаружения, опознавания и подавления источников электромагнитных излучений [излучающих РЭС]
field antimissile (missile) system — полевой [войсковой] ПРК
fire-on-the-move (air defense) gun system — подвижный зенитный артиллерийский комплекс для стрельбы в движении [на ходу]
fluidic (missile) control system — ркт. гидравлическая [струйная] система управления полетом
forward (area) air defense system — система ПВО передового района; ЗРК для войсковой ПВО передового района
graduated (availability) operational readiness system — Бр. система поэтапной боевой готовности (частей и соединений)
high-resolution satellite IR detection, tracking and targeting system — спутниковая система с ИК аппаратурой высокой разрешающей способности для обнаружения, сопровождения целей и наведения средств поражения
ICBM (alarm and) early warning satellite system — спутниковая система обнаружения пусков МБР и раннего предупреждения (средств ПРО)
information storage, tracking and retrieval system — система накопления, хранения и поиска информации
instantaneous grenade launcher (armored vehicle) smoke system — гранатомет (БМ) для быстрой постановки дымовой завесы
Precision Location [Locator] (and) Strike system — высокоточная система обеспечения обнаружения и поражения целей; высокоточный разведывательно-ударный комплекс
rapid deceleration (parachute) delivery system — парашютная система выброски грузов с быстрым торможением
real time, high-resolution reconnaissance satellite system — спутниковая разведывательная система с высокой разрешающей способностью аппаратуры и передачей информации в реальном масштабе времени
received signal-oriented (output) jamming signal power-adjusting ECM system — система РЭП с автоматическим регулированием уровня помех в зависимости от мощности принимаемого сигнала
sea-based nuclear (weapon) delivery system — система морского базирования доставки ядерного боеприпаса к цели
small surface-to-air ship self-defense (missile) system — ЗРК ближнего действия для самообороны корабля
Status Control, Alerting and Reporting system — система оповещения, контроля и уточнения состояния [боевой готовности] сил и средств
surface missile (weapon) system — наземный [корабельный] РК
target acquisition, rapid designation and precise aiming system — комплекс аппаратуры обнаружения цели, быстрого целеуказания и точного прицеливания
— ABM defense system— antimissile missile system— central weapon system— countersurprise military system— laser surveying system— tank weapon system— vertical launching system— weapons system -
47 as
в пересчете наacidity as acetic acid, mg/100ml кислотность в пересчете на уксусную кислоту, мг/100 мл;esters as ethyl acetate, mg/100ml содержание эфиров в пересчете на этилацетат, мг/100 млas and when required по первому требованиюas applicable 1. в конкретных случаях; в зависимости от конкретных условий 2. в каждом конкретном случае 3. в зависимости от применения / ситуации / обстоятельств 4. по принадлежности 5. установленным порядком; в установленном порядке; как положено 6. в части касающейсяas applied to 1. применительно кtogether with permissible variations of these values as applied to the design of piping а также допустимые отклонения этих величин применительно к проектированию трубопроводных систем 2. в случаеas applied to А в случае Аas appropriate 1. в зависимости от того, что больше подходит / используется 2. там, где это уместно 3. если таковой имеется 4. соответственно 5. установленным порядком; в установленном порядке 6. как положено 7. (см. appropriate)as can be observed from как следует изas commissioned by А по поручению Аas a consequence в результате этогоas designed по проектуas directed by A по указанию А; согласно указаниям Аas determined определяемыйas distinct from в отличие отas distinguished from в отличие отas an exception: as an exception,for pipe with D0/t < 10, the value of S shall be the lesser of the following values Исключение составляют трубы с D (/t< 10, для которых за величину S принимается меньшее из следующих значенийas expected: A was very much as expected А во многом подтвердило наши ожиданияas far as possible в крайнем (переднем, заднем, верхнем и т.д.) положенииand hold levers (1) and (2) forward as far as possible и удерживать рычаги (1) и (2) в крайнем переднем положенииas follows 1. в следующем объеме 2. следующим образомas for Specification... по ТУ...as given in поas given in Specification... по ТУ...as a guide для справки;take smth. as a guide руководствоваться чем-л.;When..., one must take A as a guide При... следует руководствоваться Aas intended 1. исправно; нормальноthose parts whose failure to function as intended would result in a released fluid to the atmosphere[me] детали, прекращение нормальной работы которых приводит к выбросу жидкости в атмосферу2. как положено 3. в установленном порядкеas is typical in как это принято на / вas it applies по принадлежностиas it happens так получилось, чтоas long as: as long as the A is maintained при условии сохранения А;The design of the tool may vary as long as the essential dimensions are maintained При условии сохранения ключевых размеров конструкция инструмента может менятьсяas many as desired произвольный ( по количеству)as a minimum как минимумas nearly as possible с максимальным приближениемas normal в штатном режиме;work as normal работать в штатном режимеas of this writing в данный момент (т.е. когда пишутся эти строки)as opposed to (противит.) а не; в отличие от; в то время как; наоборотas (a) part of 1. в ходе (напр., выполнения чего-л.)as part of the production process в ходе производства 2. в рамках (напр., выполнения какой-л. программы)as a part of the inspection process в рамках единого процесса входного контроля;impact tests performed as part of the welding procedure qualification испытания на ударную вязкость, проводимые в рамках аттестации технологии сваркиas per по (в знач. в соответствии с)as per Dwg. \# по чертежу №as per Standard... по стандарту...as a proof of в доказательство (чего-л.)as received в состоянии поставки; в состоянии доставкиas recently as a couple of years ago, fast-tracking offshore projects became the main challenge for operators and contractors всего пару лет / каких-нибудь два года назад главной проблемой как для эксплуатационников, так и для строителей стало возведение морских объектов форсированными темпамиas reflected by судя поas related to применительно кas relevant 1. как положено 2. в установленном порядкеas required 1. в установленном порядке 2. как положено 3. не регламентируетсяas a result таким образом as a result of в связи сas small as: values as small as значения, начиная сas soon as с момента;as soon as he accepted job assignment с момента получения им рабочего заданияas soon as possible безотлагательно; без промедленияas specified 1. в соответствии с нормативными требованиями 2. в установленном порядкеas specified in [NACE MR01-75] по стандарту [NACE MR01-75]as stock items частямиas typified by о чем можно судить, например, поas used in применительно к чему-л.;as used in engineering design and construction применительно к проектированию и производству работas well as \as при одновременном...;A would increase В as well as decrease С А повышает В при одновременном снижении Сas a whole в полном объемеThese rules apply only when specified by the owner, and only as a whole, not in part Эти правила имеют силу только в том случае, если они предписываются владельцем, причем только в полном объеме, а не частичноEnglish-Russian dictionary of scientific and technical difficulties vocabulary > as
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48 chain
1) цепь; цепочка3) мерная цепь || измерять мерной цепью4) чейн (единица длины, равная 20,12 м)6) последовательность, цепочка, ряд7) цепь, система (напр., событий)• -
49 line
1) линия; черта || проводить линию; линовать2) строка; строчка3) геом. прямая4) конвейер; технологическая линия; поточная линия5) канат; трос; мор. линь6) трубопровод || прокладывать трубопровод7) футеровка; кладка || футеровать; выкладывать8) облицовка || облицовывать9) геом. ось10) очередь, хвост11) ряд; серия; линия; партия ( изделий)12) контур; очертания13) линия (связи)15) рельсовый путь16) горн. отвес ( для направления выработок)17) короткое письмо18) соосный || располагать соосно•in line — на одной линии; совмещённый; совпадающий
in line with — в соответствии с; согласующийся с
in straight lines — мат. прямолинейно
in the line of — в направлении, по направлению, вдоль, по линии
line tangent to — геом. касательная к
no lines — телефон. все линии заняты ( служебный сигнал)
plotted as a line — мат. выраженный [представленный] линией ( о функциональной зависимости)
to line up on approach lights — авиац. выходить на огни
to produce a line — геом. построить линию
to seize a line — телефон. занимать линию
- absorption spectral line - coaxial supply line - coaxial transmission lineto take in line — полигр. вгонять строку
- cut line- die line- downstream water line- end line- line of constant rotation - line of equal probability - multischedule private line - numerical line - projective line - properly parallel lines - real number line - section line - water-oil interface line - waveguide transmission line -
50 product
1) продукт, изделие; товар2) мат. произведение, результат умножения3) результат, итог4) pl продукция•- absolutely free product - complete regular product - fully regular product - primary forest products - product of measure spaces - product of vector spaces - scalar triple product - semiinner product - semiscalar product - triple vector product - usual inner product - vector triple productto draw off an overhead product — хим. отбирать дистиллят
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51 relation
1) зависимость, (взаимо)связь2) отношение; соотношение4) геол. условия залегания•- almost universal relation - cause-effect relation - generalized semigroup relation - logically irreducible relation - parametrically definable relation - partial ordering relation - recursively enumerable relation - recursively invariant relation - recursively representable relation - strongly definable relation - weakly symmetric relation -
52 triangle
1) треугольник || треугольный- orthocentric triangle2) пищ. передняя четвертина говяжьей туши без спинной части, проф. "треугольник" -
53 Lisbon
Lisboa in Portuguese, is the capital of Portugal and capital of the Lisbon district. The city population is just over half a million; greater Lisbon area contains at least 2.5 million. Located on the north bank of one of the greatest harbors in Europe, formed from the estuary of the Tagus River, which flows into the Atlantic, Lisbon has a long and illustrious history. A site of Phoenician and Greek trading communities, Lisbon became an important Roman city. Its name, Lisboa, in Portuguese and Spanish, is a corruption of its Roman name, Felicitas Julia. The city experienced various waves of invaders. Muslims seized it from the Visigoths in the eighth century, and after a long siege Muslim Lisbon fell to the Portuguese Christian forces of King Afonso Henriques in 1147.Lisbon, built on a number of hills, saw most of its major palaces and churches constructed between the 14th and 18th centuries. In the 16th century, the city became the Aviz dynasty's main capital and seat, and a royal palace was built in the lower city along the harbor where ships brought the empire's riches from Africa, Asia, and Brazil. On 1 November 1755, a devastating earthquake wrecked a large part of the main city and destroyed the major buildings, killed or displaced scores of thousands of people, and destroyed important historical records and artifacts. The king's prime minister, the Marquis of Pombal, ordered the city rebuilt. The main lower city center, the baixa ("down town"), was reconstructed according to a master plan that laid out a square grid of streets, spacious squares, and broad avenues, upon which were erected buildings of a uniform height and design. Due to the earthquake's destruction, few buildings, with the exception of the larger cathedrals and palaces, predate 1755. The Baixa Pombalina, as this part of Lisbon is known, was the first planned city in Europe.Lisbon is more than the political capital of Portugal, the site of the central government's offices, the legislative, and executive buildings. Lisbon is the economic, social, and cultural capital of the country, as well as the major educational center that contains almost half the country's universities and secondary schools.The continuing importance of Lisbon as the country's political heart and mind, despite the justifiable resentment of its northern rival, Oporto, and the university town of Coimbra, was again illustrated in the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which began with a military coup by the Armed Forces Movement there. The Estado Novo was overthrown in a largely bloodless coup organized by career junior military officers whose main strategy was directed toward the conquest and control of the capital. Once the Armed Forces Movement had the city of Lisbon and environs under its control by the afternoon of 25 April 1974, its mastery of the remainder of the country was assured.Along with its dominance of the country's economy, politics, and government, Lisbon's cultural offerings remain impressive. The city is a treasure house that contains hundreds of historic houses and squares, churches and cathedrals, ancient palaces, and castles, some reconstructed to appear as they were before the Lisbon earthquake of 1755. There are scores of museums and libraries. Among the more outstanding museums open to the public are the Museu de Arte Antiga and the museums of the Gulbenkian Foundation. -
54 lead
I.A n1 (winning position in race, game, poll, quiz) to be in the lead, to have the lead être en tête ; to go into the lead, to take the lead passer en tête ; this gave him the lead ceci lui a permis de passer en tête ; to move into an early lead passer rapidement en tête ; to share the lead se partager la première place ;2 ( amount by which one is winning) avance f (over sur) ; to have a lead of three points/half a lap avoir trois points/un demi-tour de piste d'avance ; to have a six second/three-goal lead avoir six secondes/trois buts d'avance ; to increase one's lead creuser l'écart (by de) ; to increase one's lead in the polls to 20% atteindre une avance de 20% dans les sondages ;3 ( initiative) to take the lead prendre l'initiative ; to take the lead in doing être le premier/la première à faire ; to give a ou the lead donner l'exemple (in doing en faisant) ; to follow sb's lead suivre l'exemple de qn ;4 ( clue) piste f ; to have a number of leads to pursue avoir plusieurs pistes à suivre ; this was our first real lead c'était notre première vraie piste ; to give sb a lead as to mettre qn sur la piste ou la voie de [solution, perpetrator] ;5 Theat, Cin ( role) rôle m principal, premier rôle m ; to play the lead jouer le rôle principal ; who was the male/female lead? qui était l'acteur/l'actrice qui jouait le rôle principal? ;6 Journ ( story) to be the lead être à la une ○ ; to be the lead in all the papers faire la une ○ de tous les journaux ;9 ( in cards) it's Nina's lead c'est à Nina de jouer en premier.B modif [guitarist, guitar] premier/-ière (before n) ; [role, singer] principal ; [article] principal, à la une ○.1 (guide, escort) mener, conduire [person] (to sth à qch ; to sb auprès de qn ; out of hors de ; through à travers) ; to lead sb into the house/into the kitchen mener or conduire qn dans la maison/à la cuisine ; to lead sb up/down mener or conduire qn en haut de/en bas de [hill, staircase] ; to lead sb back ramener or reconduire qn (to à) ; to lead sb away éloigner qn (from de) ; to lead sb across the road faire traverser la rue à qn ; to lead sb to safety/into a trap conduire qn en lieu sûr/dans un piège ;2 (pull, take by hand or bridle) mener [child, prisoner, horse] (to à ; into dans ; by par) ; to lead sb to his cell conduire qn dans sa cellule ;3 ( bring) [path, route, sign, clue, sound, smell] mener [person] (to à) ; where is this discussion leading us? à quoi cette conversation nous mène-t-elle? ; this leads me to my main point ceci m'amène à mon sujet principal ; to lead the conversation onto amener la conversation sur ;4 ( be leader of) mener [army, team, expedition, attack, strike, revolt, proceedings, procession, parade] ; diriger [orchestra, research] ; to lead sb to victory mener qn à la victoire ; to lead the debate mener les débats ; to lead a congregation in prayer entonner les prières ; to lead the dancing ouvrir le bal ;5 Sport, Comm ( be ahead of) avoir une avance sur [rival, team] ; to be leading sb by 10 metres avoir une avance de 10 mètres sur qn, devancer qn de 10 mètres ; to be leading Liverpool 4-2 mener par 4 buts à 2 dans le match contre Liverpool ; to lead the world être au premier rang mondial ; to lead the field (in commerce, research) être le plus avancé ; ( in race) mener, être en tête ; to lead the market être le leader du marché ;6 (cause, influence) to lead sb to do amener qn à faire ; to lead sb to believe/hope that amener qn à croire /espérer que ; to be led to believe that être amené à croire que ; he led me to expect that d'après ce qu'il m'avait dit je m'attendais à ce que (+ subj) ; what led you to this conclusion? qu'est-ce qui vous a amené à cette conclusion? ; everything leads me to conclude that tout me porte à conclure que ; to be easily led être très influençable ;7 (conduct, have) mener [active life, lazy life] ; to lead a life of luxury/idleness vivre dans le luxe/l'oisiveté ;8 Jur to lead a witness interroger un témoin en lui suggérant les réponses ;1 (go, be directed) to lead to [path, route] mener à ; [door] s'ouvrir sur ; [exit, trapdoor] donner accès à ; to lead back to ramener à ; to lead off the corridor [passage] partir du couloir ; [door] s'ouvrir sur le couloir ; footsteps led away from the scene des traces de pas partaient du lieu ;2 ( result in) to lead to entraîner [complication, discovery, accident, response] ; it was bound to lead to trouble ça devait mal finir ; one thing led to another, and we… de fil en aiguille, nous… ;3 ( be ahead) [runner, car, company] être en tête ; [team, side] mener ; to lead by three games/15 seconds avoir trois jeux/15 secondes d'avance ; to be leading in the arms race être en tête dans la course aux armements ;5 ( in dancing) conduire ;8 ( in boxing) to lead with one's left/right attaquer de gauche/de droite ;9 ( in cards) jouer le premier/la première.to lead the way ( go first) passer devant ; ( guide others) montrer le chemin ; (be ahead, winning) être en tête ; to lead the way up/down/into passer devant pour monter/descendre/entrer dans ; to lead the way in space research être le numéro un dans le domaine de la recherche spatiale.■ lead on:▶ lead [sb] on1 ( give false hope) mener [qn] en bateau ○ [client, investor, searcher] ;2 ( sexually) provoquer ;3 ( influence) influencer.■ lead up to:▶ lead up to [sth]1 ( precede) précéder ; the years leading up to the war les années qui ont précédé la guerre ;2 ( culminate in) se terminer par [argument, outburst] ;3 ( introduce) amener [topic] ; I had a feeling you were leading up to that je sentais que tu voulais en venir là.II.A n4 (on fishing line, in gun cartridge etc) plomb m ;6 Print interligne f ;to fill ou pump sb full of lead ○ cribler qn de balles ○ ; to get the lead out ○ US ( stop loafing) se bouger ; ( speed up) se grouiller ○ ; to go over US ou down GB like a lead balloon ○ tomber à plat ○ ; to swing the lead ○ † GB tirer au flanc ○. -
55 under
under ['ʌndə(r)]sous ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (d)-(g) moins de ⇒ 1 (b) au-dessous de ⇒ 1 (b) sous le poids de ⇒ 1 (c) conformément à ⇒ 1 (h) en cours de ⇒ 1 (i) dessous ⇒ 2 (a)(a) (beneath, below) sous;∎ the newspaper was under the chair/cushion le journal était sous la chaise/le coussin;∎ the pantry is under the stairs le garde-manger est sous l'escalier;∎ I can't see anything under it je ne vois rien (en) dessous;∎ put it under that mettez-le là-dessous;∎ there is a coat of paint under the wallpaper il y a une couche de peinture sous le papier peint;∎ the body was lying under a sheet le cadavre était étendu sous un drap;∎ he wore a white shirt under his jacket il portait une chemise blanche sous sa veste;∎ he pulled a wallet from under his jersey il a sorti un portefeuille de sous son pull;∎ he was carrying a paper under his arm il portait un journal sous le bras;∎ hold your hand under the tap mettez votre main sous le robinet;∎ stand under my umbrella mettez-vous sous mon parapluie;∎ we took shelter under a tree nous nous sommes abrités sous un arbre;∎ to be born under Aries/Leo être né sous le signe du Bélier/du Lion;∎ it can only be seen under a microscope on ne peut le voir qu'au microscope;∎ we had to crawl under the barbed wire on a dû passer sous les barbelés en rampant;∎ you have to crawl under it il faut ramper dessous;∎ the tunnel ran under the sea le tunnel passait sous la mer;∎ she was swimming under water/under the bridge elle nageait sous l'eau/sous le pont;∎ it's unlucky to walk under a ladder ça porte malheur de passer sous une échelle(b) (less than) moins de, au-dessous de;∎ under £7,000 moins de 7000 livres;∎ everything is under £5 tout est à moins de 5 livres;∎ is she under 16? est-ce qu'elle a moins de 16 ans?;∎ children under ten les enfants au-dessous ou de moins de dix ans;∎ in under ten minutes en moins de dix minutes(c) (weighed down by) sous le poids de;∎ he staggered under his heavy load il chancelait sous le poids de son lourd chargement;∎ figurative to sink under the weight of one's debts sombrer sous le poids de ses dettes(d) (indicating conditions or circumstances) sous, dans;∎ we had to work under appalling conditions on a dû travailler dans des conditions épouvantables;∎ she was murdered under strange circumstances elle a été tuée dans d'étranges circonstances;∎ under the circumstances vu les circonstances(e) (subject to) sous;∎ under duress/threat sous la contrainte/la menace∎ under sedation/treatment sous calmants/traitement(g) (directed, governed by) sous (la direction de);∎ he studied under Fox il a été l'élève de Fox;∎ she has two assistants under her elle a deux assistants sous ses ordres;∎ Music the Bristol Chamber Orchestra under Martin Davenport l'orchestre de (musique de) chambre de Bristol sous la direction de Martin Davenport;∎ I served under General White j'ai servi sous le général White;∎ the book describes Uganda under Amin le livre décrit l'Ouganda sous (le régime d')Amin Dada;∎ to come under (the authority of) the Home Office relever du ministère de l'Intérieur;∎ under her management, the firm prospered sous sa direction, l'entreprise a prospéré;∎ under fascism, many groups were outlawed sous le régime fasciste, de nombreux groupes furent interdits(h) (according to) conformément à, en vertu de, selon;∎ under the new law, all this will change avec la nouvelle loi, tout cela va changer;∎ under the new law, elections will be held every four years en vertu de ou selon la nouvelle loi, les élections auront lieu tous les quatre ans;∎ under the Emergency Powers Act conformément à la loi instituant l'état d'urgence;∎ under this system, the President has little real power dans ce système, le Président a peu de pouvoir véritable;∎ under (the terms of) his will/the agreement selon (les termes de) son testament/l'accord(i) (in the process of) en cours de;∎ under construction en cours de construction;∎ the matter is under consideration/discussion on est en train d'étudier/de discuter la question∎ under wheat/barley en blé/orge∎ you'll find the book under philosophy vous trouverez le livre sous la rubrique philosophie;∎ you'll find my number under Magee vous trouverez mon numéro sous Magee;∎ she writes under the name of Heidi Croft elle écrit sous le nom de Heidi Croft;∎ few singers perform under their own name peu de chanteurs gardent leur vrai nom2 adverb(a) (below ground, water, door etc)∎ to slide or to slip under se glisser dessous;∎ to pass under passer dessous;∎ to stay under (under water) rester sous l'eau(c) (less → in age, price)∎ you have to be 16 or under to enter il faut avoir 16 ans ou moins pour se présenter;∎ items at £20 and under des articles à 20 livres et au-dessous -
56 aircraft
воздушное судно [суда], атмосферный летательный аппарат [аппараты]; самолёт (ы) ; вертолёты); авиация; авиационный; см. тж. airplane, boostaircraft in the barrier — самолёт, задержанный аварийной (аэродромной) тормозной установкой
aircraft off the line — новый [только что построенный] ЛА
B through F aircraft — самолёты модификаций B, C, D, E и F
carrier(-based, -borne) aircraft — палубный ЛА; авианосная авиация
conventional takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт с обычными взлетом и посадкой (в отличие от укороченного или вертикального)
keep the aircraft (headed) straight — выдерживать направление полёта ЛА (при выполнении маневра); сохранять прямолинейный полет ЛА
keep the aircraft stalled — сохранять режим срыва [сваливания] самолёта, оставлять самолёт в режиме срыва [сваливания]
nearly wing borne aircraft — верт. ЛА в конце режима перехода к горизонтальному полёту
pull the aircraft off the deck — разг. отрывать ЛА от земли (при взлете)
put the aircraft nose-up — переводить [вводить] ЛА на кабрирование [в режим кабрирования]
put the aircraft through its paces — определять предельные возможности ЛА, «выжимать все из ЛА»
reduced takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт укороченного взлета и посадки (с укороченным разбегом и пробегом)
rocket(-powered, -propelled) aircraft — ракетный ЛА, ЛА с ракетным двигателем
roll the aircraft into a bank — вводить ЛА в крен, накренять ЛА
rotate the aircraft into the climb — увеличивать угол тангажа ЛА для перехода к набору высоты, переводить ЛА в набор высоты
short takeoff and landing aircraft — самолёт короткого взлета и посадки (с коротким разбегом и пробегом)
single vertical tail aircraft — ЛА с одинарным [центральным] вертикальным оперением
strategic(-mission, -purpose) aircraft — ЛА стратегического назначения; стратегический самолёт
take the aircraft throughout its entire envelope — пилотировать ЛА во всем диапазоне полётных режимов
trim the aircraft to fly hands-and-feet off — балансировать самолёт для полёта с брошенным управлением [с брошенными ручкой и педалями]
turbofan(-engined, -powered) aircraft — ЛА с турбовентиляторными двигателями, ЛА с ТРДД
turbojet(-powered, -propelled) aircraft — ЛА с ТРД
undergraduate navigator training aircraft — учебно-тренировочный самолёт для повышенной лётной подготовки штурманов
water(-based, takeoff and landing) aircraft — гидросамолёт
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57 Bollée, Ernest-Sylvain
[br]b. 19 July 1814 Clefmont (Haute-Marne), Franced. 11 September 1891 Le Mans, France[br]French inventor of the rotor-stator wind engine and founder of the Bollée manufacturing industry.[br]Ernest-Sylvain Bollée was the founder of an extensive dynasty of bellfounders based in Le Mans and in Orléans. He and his three sons, Amédée (1844–1917), Ernest-Sylvain fils (1846–1917) and Auguste (1847-?), were involved in work and patents on steam-and petrol-driven cars, on wind engines and on hydraulic rams. The presence of the Bollées' car industry in Le Mans was a factor in the establishment of the car races that are held there.In 1868 Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père took out a patent for a wind engine, which at that time was well established in America and in England. In both these countries, variable-shuttered as well as fixed-blade wind engines were in production and patented, but the Ernest-Sylvain Bollée patent was for a type of wind engine that had not been seen before and is more akin to the water-driven turbine of the Jonval type, with its basic principle being parallel to the "rotor" and "stator". The wind drives through a fixed ring of blades on to a rotating ring that has a slightly greater number of blades. The blades of the fixed ring are curved in the opposite direction to those on the rotating blades and thus the air is directed onto the latter, causing it to rotate at a considerable speed: this is the "rotor". For greater efficiency a cuff of sheet iron can be attached to the "stator", giving a tunnel effect and driving more air at the "rotor". The head of this wind engine is turned to the wind by means of a wind-driven vane mounted in front of the blades. The wind vane adjusts the wind angle to enable the wind engine to run at a constant speed.The fact that this wind engine was invented by the owner of a brass foundry, with all the gear trains between the wind vane and the head of the tower being of the highest-quality brass and, therefore, small in scale, lay behind its success. Also, it was of prefabricated construction, so that fixed lengths of cast-iron pillar were delivered, complete with twelve treads of cast-iron staircase fixed to the outside and wrought-iron stays. The drive from the wind engine was taken down the inside of the pillar to pumps at ground level.Whilst the wind engines were being built for wealthy owners or communes, the work of the foundry continued. The three sons joined the family firm as partners and produced several steam-driven vehicles. These vehicles were the work of Amédée père and were l'Obéissante (1873); the Autobus (1880–3), of which some were built in Berlin under licence; the tram Bollée-Dalifol (1876); and the private car La Mancelle (1878). Another important line, in parallel with the pumping mechanism required for the wind engines, was the development of hydraulic rams, following the Montgolfier patent. In accordance with French practice, the firm was split three ways when Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père died. Amédée père inherited the car side of the business, but it is due to Amédée fils (1867– 1926) that the principal developments in car manufacture came into being. He developed the petrol-driven car after the impetus given by his grandfather, his father and his uncle Ernest-Sylvain fils. In 1887 he designed a four-stroke single-cylinder engine, although he also used engines designed by others such as Peugeot. He produced two luxurious saloon cars before putting Torpilleur on the road in 1898; this car competed in the Tour de France in 1899. Whilst designing other cars, Amédée's son Léon (1870–1913) developed the Voiturette, in 1896, and then began general manufacture of small cars on factory lines. The firm ceased work after a merger with the English firm of Morris in 1926. Auguste inherited the Eolienne or wind-engine side of the business; however, attracted to the artistic life, he sold out to Ernest Lebert in 1898 and settled in the Paris of the Impressionists. Lebert developed the wind-engine business and retained the basic "stator-rotor" form with a conventional lattice tower. He remained in Le Mans, carrying on the business of the manufacture of wind engines, pumps and hydraulic machinery, describing himself as a "Civil Engineer".The hydraulic-ram business fell to Ernest-Sylvain fils and continued to thrive from a solid base of design and production. The foundry in Le Mans is still there but, more importantly, the bell foundry of Dominique Bollée in Saint-Jean-de-Braye in Orléans is still at work casting bells in the old way.[br]Further ReadingAndré Gaucheron and J.Kenneth Major, 1985, The Eolienne Bollée, The International Molinological Society.Cénomane (Le Mans), 11, 12 and 13 (1983 and 1984).KM -
58 Poncelet, Jean Victor
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering[br]b. 1 July 1788 Metz, Franced. 22 December 1867 Paris, France[br]French mathematician and military and hydraulic engineer.[br]Poncelet studied mathematics at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris from 1807 to 1810. He joined the Army, gaining admission to the Corps of Engineers. He worked on the fortifications on the Isle of Walcheren in Holland, and in 1812 he found himself on the Russian front, engulfed in the disastrous defeat of the French at Krasnoi. Poncelet was left for dead on the field, but he was found by the Russians and taken to Saratov, where he was imprisoned for two years. He had ample opportunity there to ponder mathematical problems, a mental process from which stemmed his pioneering advances in projective geometry.After his release he returned to this native city of Metz, where he undertook routine military engineering and teaching tasks. These left him time to pursue his mathematical studies in projective geometry. This bore fruit in a series of publications, most notably the first volume of his Traité des propriétés projectives des figures (1822, Paris), the first book to be devoted to the new discipline of projective geometry. With his election to the Académie des Sciences in 1834, Poncelet moved to Paris and devoted much of his time to developing courses in applied mechanics in the Faculty of Science, resulting in a number of books, especially the Introduction à la mécanique industrielle, physique ou expérimentale (1841, Paris: Metz). In 1848 he had attained the rank of general and was made Commandant of the Ecole Polytechnique, a post he held for two years. After his retirement in 1850 he was deeply involved in the industrial machines and tools division at both the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and the similar exhibition in Paris in 1855.Most of Poncelet's work in applied mechanics and technology was conceived during the period 1825–40. His technological innovations were centred on hydraulic engineering, and in 1826 he invented an inward-flow turbine. At the same time he directed his attention to the vertical undershot water-wheel, with wooden blades set radially and substituted curved metal blades: he used tight-fitting masonry and floors in the wheel pits so that all the water would be swept into the spaces between the blades. In addition, he ensured that the water flowing from the blades fell clear of the wheel and did not run in tail water. This greatly improved the efficiency of the water-wheel.[br]BibliographyH.Tribout, 1936, Un Grand Savant: le général Jean-Victor Poncelet, Paris, pp. 204–20 (the most complete list of his published works).Further ReadingI.Didion, 1870, "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages du général J.-V.Poncelet", Mémoires de l'Académie de Metz 50:101–59.M.Daumas (ed), 1968, Histoire des techniques, Vol. 3, Paris (briefly describes his technological work).LRD -
59 Heuristics
[A]t one point AM [Automatic Mathematician] had some notions of sets, set-operations, numbers, and simple arithmetic. One heuristic rule it knew said " If F is an interesting relation, then look at its inverse". This rule fired after AM had studied "multiplication" for a while. The r.h.s. of the rule then directed AM to define and study the relation "divisors-of" (e.g. divisors-of (12) {1,2,3,4,6,12}. Another heuristic rule that later fired said " If f is a relation from A into B, then it's worth examining those members of A which map into extremal members of B." In this case, f was matched to "divisors-of", A was "numbers", B was "sets of numbers", and an extremal member of B might be, e.g., a very small set of numbers. Thus this heuristic rule caused AM to define the set of numbers with no divisors, the set of numbers with only 1 divisor, with only 2 divisors, etc. One of these sets (the last [ sic] mentioned) turned out subsequently to be quite important; these numbers are of course the primes. (Lenat & Harris, 1978, p. 30)Extraordinarily rapid progress during the early stages of an attack on a new problem area is a rather common occurrence in AI research; it merely signifies that the test cases with which the system has been challenged are below the level of difficulty where combinatorial explosion of the number of pathways in the problem space sets in.... It is the goal of AI research to move that threshold higher and higher on the scale of problem complexity through the introduction of heuristics-heuristics to reduce the rate of growth of the solution tree, heuristics to guide the development of the tree so that it will be rich in pathways leading to satisfactory problem solutions, and heuristics to direct the search to the "best" of these pathways. (Gelernter, quoted in Barr & Feigenbaum, 1982, pp. 139-140)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Heuristics
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60 Information Processing
The term "information processing" originated in the late fifties in the computer field as a general descriptive term that seemed somewhat less contingent and parochial than "computer science," which also came into use during the same period. Thus, it was the name of choice for two of the encompassing professional organizations formed at the time: the In ternational Federation of Information Processing Societies and the American Federation of Information Processing Societies. Although the transfer of the phrase from activities of computers to parallel activities of human beings undoubtedly occurred independently in a number of heads, the term was originally identified pretty closely with computer simulation of cognitive processes... ; that is, with the kind of effort from which arose the theory in this book. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 888)It was because the activities of the computer itself seemed in some ways akin to cognitive processes. Computers accept information, manipulate symbols, store items in "memory" and retrieve them again, classify inputs, recognize patterns and so on.... Indeed the assumptions that underlie most contemporary work on information processing are surprisingly like those of nineteenth century introspective psychology, though without introspection itself. (Neisser, 1976, pp. 5, 7)The processor was assumed to be rational, and attention was directed to the logical nature of problem solving strategies. The "mature western mind" was presumed to be one that, in abstracting knowledge from the idosyncracies of particular everyday experience, employed Aristotelian laws of logic. When applied to categories, this meant that to know a category was to have an abstracted clear-cut, necessary, and sufficient criteria for category membership. If other thought processes, such as imagery, ostensive definition, reasoning by analogy to particular instances, or the use of metaphors were considered at all, they were usually relegated to lesser beings such as women, children, primitive people, or even to nonhumans. (Rosch & Lloyd, 1978, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Information Processing
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