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development+progress

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101 Economy

   Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.

   For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.

   Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.

   Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.

   During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.

   After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging.

    See also Empire, Portuguese overseas.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Economy
102 развитие

с. development; growth, progress, evolution

получать большое развитие — receive a large development effort

развитие повреждения — development of failure

развитие ребёнка — the evolution of the child

регулируемое развитие — regulated development

скачкообразное развитие — saltatory evolution

ускоренное развитие — accelerated development

Синонимический ряд:

1. вырабатывание (сущ.) воспитание; выковывание; вырабатывание; созревание; формирование

2. раскручивание (сущ.) раскручивание

Антонимический ряд:

отсталость

Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > развитие
103 Randall, Sir John Turton

SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

[br]

b. 23 March 1905 Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire, England

d. 16 June 1984 Edinburgh, Scotland

[br]

English physicist and biophysicist, primarily known for the development, with Boot of the cavity magnetron.

[br]

Following secondary education at Ashton-inMakerfield Grammar School, Randall entered Manchester University to read physics, gaining a first class BSc in 1925 and his MSc in 1926. From 1926 to 1937 he was a research physicist at the General Electric Company (GEC) laboratories, where he worked on luminescent powders, following which he became Warren Research Fellow of the Royal Society at Birmingham University, studying electronic processes in luminescent solids. With the outbreak of the Second World War he became an honorary member of the university staff and transferred to a group working on the development of centrimetric radar. With Boot he was responsible for the development of the cavity magnetron, which had a major impact on the development of radar.

When Birmingham resumed its atomic research programme in 1943, Randall became a temporary lecturer at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. The following year he was appointed Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of St Andrews, but in 1946 he moved again to the Wheatstone Chair of Physics at King's College, London. There his developing interest in biophysical research led to the setting up of a multi-disciplinary group in 1951 to study connective tissues and other biological components, and in 1950– 5 he was joint Editor of Progress in Biophysics. From 1961 until his retirement in 1970 he was Professor of Biophysics at King's College and for most of that time he was also Chairman of the School of Biological Sciences. In addition, for many years he was honorary Director of the Medical Research Council Biophysics Research Unit.

After he retired he returned to Edinburgh and continued to study biological problems in the university zoology laboratory.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1962. FRS 1946. FRS Edinburgh 1972. DSc Manchester 1938. Royal Society of Arts Thomas Gray Memorial Prize 1943. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1946. Franklin Institute John Price Wetherill Medal 1958. City of Pennsylvania John Scott Award 1959. (All jointly with Boot for the cavity magnetron.)

Bibliography

1934, Diffraction of X-Rays by Amorphous Solids, Liquids \& Gases (describes his early work).

1953, editor, Nature \& Structure of Collagen.

1976, with H.Boot, "Historical notes on the cavity magnetron", Transactions of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ED-23: 724 (gives an account of the cavity-magnetron development at Birmingham).

Further Reading

M.H.F.Wilkins, "John Turton Randall"—Bio-graphical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, London: Royal Society.

KF

Biographical history of technology > Randall, Sir John Turton
104 технический прогресс

1) Military: technological progress, technology push

2) Economy: growth of technology, technical advance, technological advance

3) Mining: technical advancement

4) Patents: advance in the art, engineering progress

5) EBRD: technical progress, technological advancement, technological change

6) Automation: (научно-) technological development

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > технический прогресс
105 kemajuan

headway, progress, betterment, advancement

* * *

progress

* * *

progress, advance, development

http://www.balifolder.com

Indonesia-Inggris kamus > kemajuan
106 продолжаться

Продолжаться - to continue, to be continuing, to be continued; to persist; to proceed, to be proceeding; to be in progress
At moderate light intensities the O2 uptake continues at an unchanged pace.

Progress to an understanding of these factors is continuing along the lines detailed in the initial sections of this paper.

Its use will surely be continued.

Further studies are in progress to investigate the effect on current superalloys such as IN738, IN792, IN939, etc.

For a number of years the 50, 25, 15, 10 rule has also persisted: the maintenance cost be broken down into 50-percent memory, 25-percent packaging and power, 15-percent I/O logic, and 10-percent CPV logic.

Development work is proceeding on transmitter design with the aim of further increasing immunity to interference from commercial and military transmission.

— анализ данных в настоящее время продолжается, но некоторые выводы можно сделать уже сейчас

— всё ещё продолжается

— ещё продолжается

— и такое... будет продолжаться

— по мере того, как... продолжался

— поиск решений продолжается

— после того, как опыт продолжался довольно длительное время

— продолжаться вплоть до

— продолжаться по графику

— рассмотрение этого вопроса продолжается

— спор о... продолжается и поныне

— споры относительно... всё ещё продолжаются

Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > продолжаться
107 aitzinamendu

iz. (I) ( aurrerabidea) progress, headway; gizartearen \aitzinamenduarentzat for the {progress || development} of society; ikasketetan \aitzinamendu egin du he's made some {headway || progress} in his studies

Euskara Ingelesa hiztegiaren > aitzinamendu
108 werden

n; -s, kein Pl.; (Entwicklung) development, growth; (Entstehung) birth; (Fortschreiten) progress; im Werden sein be in the making

* * *

to arise; to get; to become; will; to grow

* * *
Wer|den ['veːɐdn]
nt -s,
no pl
1) (= Entstehung) development

im Wérden sein — to be in the making

die lebenden Sprachen sind immer im Wérden begriffen — living languages are in a state of continual development

2) (PHILOS) Becoming

* * *

1) (to come or grow to be: Her coat has become badly torn; She has become even more beautiful.) become

2) (to qualify or take a job as: She became a doctor.) become

3) (to become: You're getting old.) get

4) be

5) ((of a photograph) to be developed: This photograph has come out very well.) come out

6) (to become: These apples have gone bad.) go

7) (to become: It's growing dark.) grow

8) ((in certain phrases) to be or become: The river ran dry; My blood ran cold (= I was afraid).) run

9) sour

10) (to (cause to) change colour to: Her hair turned white; The shock turned his hair white.) turn

11) (used to show willingness: I'll do that for you if you like; I won't do it!) will

12) (used to state that something happens regularly, is quite normal etc: Accidents will happen.) will

* * *

Wer·den

<-s>

[ˈve:ɐ̯dn̩]

nt kein pl (geh) development

im \Werden sein to be in the making

* * *
1.
unregelmäßiges intransitives Verb; mit sein; 2. Part

Ex:

geworden

/Ex:

1) become; get

älter werden — get or grow old[er]

du bist aber groß/schlank geworden! — you've grown so tall/slim

wahnsinnig od. verrückt werden — go mad

gut werden — turn out well

das muss anders werden — things have to change

wach werden — wake up

rot werden — go or turn red

er ist 70 [Jahre alt] geworden — he has had his 70th birthday or has turned 70

heute soll es/wird es heiß werden — it's supposed to get/it's going to be hot today

mir wird übel/heiß/schwindelig — I feel sick/I'm getting hot/dizzy

Arzt/Vater werden — become a doctor/a father

was willst du einmal werden? — what do you want to be when you grow up?

Erster/Letzter werden — be or come first/last

was soll das werden? — what is that going to be?

eine werdende Mutter — a mother-to-be; an expectant mother

2) (sich entwickeln)

zu etwas werden — become something

das Wasser wurde zu Eis — the water turned into ice

was soll aus dir werden? — what is to become of you?

aus ihm ist nichts/etwas geworden — he hasn't got anywhere/has got somewhere in life

daraus wird nichts werden — nothing will come of it/that!

3) unpers

es wird [höchste] Zeit — it is [high] time

es wird 10 Uhr — it is nearly 10 o'clock

es wird Tag/Nacht/Herbst — day is dawning/night is falling/autumn is coming

4) (entstehen) come into existence

es werde Licht — (bibl.) let there be light

5) (ugs.)

sind die Fotos [was] geworden? — have the photos turned out [well]?

wirds bald? — (ugs.) hurry up!

was soll nur werden? — what's going to happen now?
2.
Hilfsverb; 2. Part

Ex:

worden

/Ex:

1) (zur Bildung des Futurs)

wir werden uns um ihn kümmern — we will take care of him

dir werd ich helfen! — (ugs.) I'll give you what for (sl.)

es wird gleich regnen — it is going to rain any minute

wir werden nächste Woche in Urlaub fahren — we are going on holiday next week; (als Ausdruck der Vermutung)

es wird um die 80 Euro kosten — it will cost around 80 euros

sie werden [wohl] im Garten sein — they are probably in the garden

er wird doch nicht [etwa] krank sein? — he wouldn't be ill, would he?

sie wird schon wissen, was sie tut — she must know what she's doing

2) (zur Bildung des Passivs) be

du wirst gerufen — you are being called

er wurde gebeten/ist gebeten worden — he was asked

ihm wurde gesagt — he was told

es wurde gelacht/gesungen/getanzt — there was laughter/singing/dancing

unser Haus wird renoviert — our house is being renovated

3) (zur Umschreibung des Konjunktivs)

was würdest du tun? — what would you do?

würden Sie bitte...? — would you please...?

* * *

werden; wird, wurde, obs oder hum ward, (ge)worden

A. v/i (ist geworden)

1. mit adj: get, become; Betonung auf dem Endzustand: oft go;

müde/nass/reich etc

werden get tired/wet/rich etc;

blind/kahl/verrückt/sauer/taub etc

werden go blind/bald/mad/sour/deaf etc;

alt werden get ( oder grow) old;

besser werden get better, improve;

blass werden go ( oder turn) pale;

böse oder

wütend werden get angry ( oder mad);

dick werden get fat, put on weight;

gesund werden get well;

grau werden go ( oder turn) grey (US gray);

kalt werden get cold (auch Essen etc);

krank werden fall ( oder get) ill ( oder sick);

rot werden go red, blush;

schlecht werden go bad ( oder off);

schlimmer werden get worse;

schwach werden get ( oder grow) weak;

katholisch werden become a Catholic, turn Catholic

2. (besonders etwas) become, be;

was will er werden? what does he want to be?;

sie wurde Ärztin etc she became a doctor etc;

er ist was/nichts geworden umg he made something of himself ( oder his life)/he never made anything of himself;

er wird wie sein Vater (werden) he’s getting (to be) like his father;

sie wird meine Frau she is going to be my wife;

ich werde Vater/Großvater etc I’m going to be a father/grandfather etc;

ich werde 30 I’m nearly 30;

er wird heute 18 he’s 18 today;

sie ist vorige Woche 50 geworden she was 50 last week;

er ist Erster geworden he was ( oder came) first;

er wurde Bester seines Jahrgangs etc he was the best in his year etc

3.

Wirklichkeit werden become reality;

zur Gewohnheit werden become a habit;

zu einem reichen Mann/zu einem Star werden become a rich man/a star;

die Vorräte werden immer weniger supplies are getting lower and lower;

wie wird die Ernte werden? what kind of harvest are we going to have?;

wie sind die Fotos geworden? how have the photos ( oder pictures) turned out?;

die Fotos sind nichts geworden umg the photos ( oder pictures) were no good ( oder didn’t come out well); besonders wenn nichts erkennbar ist: the photos ( oder pictures) didn’t come out;

der Wein/Kuchen etc

ist nichts geworden umg the wine/cake was no good;

die Sache wird allmählich umg things are coming along ( oder are beginning to take shape)

4. unpers:

dunkel werden get (grow liter) dark;

kalt werden get cold;

warm werden get warm, warm up;

es wird Winter winter is on its way;

mir wird kalt I’m beginning to feel ( oder get) chilly;

mir wird schlecht I feel sick;

was soll nun werden? what are we going to do now?;

ich weiß nicht, was werden soll I don’t know what to do;

aus dem Geschäft ist nichts geworden nothing came of the deal;

was ist aus ihm geworden? what’s become of him?;

aus ihm ist nichts geworden he never got anywhere, he never made anything of himself;

daraus wird nichts nothing will come of it, it won’t come to anything; als Verbot: you can forget (all) about that;

es wird schon werden it’ll be all right;

was nicht ist, kann noch werden umg things can change;

morgen wird es ein Jahr, dass … tomorrow it’ll be a year ago that …; → spät A

B. v/aux (ist … worden)

1. Futur:

ich werde fahren I will ( oder I’ll) drive;

sie wird gleich weinen she’s going to cry (any minute);

es wird ihm doch nichts passiert sein? I hope nothing has happened to him;

es wird schon so sein (wie du sagst) I’m sure you’re right;

ich werde es (wohl) verloren haben I must have lost it

2. Konditional:

ich würde kommen, wenn … I would ( oder I’d) come if …

3. passivisch:

geliebt werden be loved;

gebaut werden be built; gegenwärtig: be being built;

es wird viel gebaut there’s a lot of building going on;

es wurde getanzt they ( oder we) danced, there was dancing;

es ist uns gesagt worden we’ve been told;

jetzt wird aber geschlafen/gearbeitet! umg it’s time to sleep/to get down to work, it’s time you ( oder we) went to sleep/got down to work;

jetzt wird nicht mehr geredet! umg no more talking now;

heute wird nicht gestritten! umg today there are going to be no arguments!;

und ward nicht mehr gesehn hum and was never seen again

* * *
1.
unregelmäßiges intransitives Verb; mit sein; 2. Part

Ex:

geworden

/Ex:

1) become; get

älter werden — get or grow old[er]

du bist aber groß/schlank geworden! — you've grown so tall/slim

wahnsinnig od. verrückt werden — go mad

gut werden — turn out well

das muss anders werden — things have to change

wach werden — wake up

rot werden — go or turn red

er ist 70 [Jahre alt] geworden — he has had his 70th birthday or has turned 70

heute soll es/wird es heiß werden — it's supposed to get/it's going to be hot today

mir wird übel/heiß/schwindelig — I feel sick/I'm getting hot/dizzy

Arzt/Vater werden — become a doctor/a father

was willst du einmal werden? — what do you want to be when you grow up?

Erster/Letzter werden — be or come first/last

was soll das werden? — what is that going to be?

eine werdende Mutter — a mother-to-be; an expectant mother

2) (sich entwickeln)

zu etwas werden — become something

das Wasser wurde zu Eis — the water turned into ice

was soll aus dir werden? — what is to become of you?

aus ihm ist nichts/etwas geworden — he hasn't got anywhere/has got somewhere in life

daraus wird nichts werden — nothing will come of it/that!

3) unpers

es wird [höchste] Zeit — it is [high] time

es wird 10 Uhr — it is nearly 10 o'clock

es wird Tag/Nacht/Herbst — day is dawning/night is falling/autumn is coming

4) (entstehen) come into existence

es werde Licht — (bibl.) let there be light

5) (ugs.)

sind die Fotos [was] geworden? — have the photos turned out [well]?

wirds bald? — (ugs.) hurry up!

was soll nur werden? — what's going to happen now?
2.
Hilfsverb; 2. Part

Ex:

worden

/Ex:

1) (zur Bildung des Futurs)

wir werden uns um ihn kümmern — we will take care of him

dir werd ich helfen! — (ugs.) I'll give you what for (sl.)

es wird gleich regnen — it is going to rain any minute

wir werden nächste Woche in Urlaub fahren — we are going on holiday next week; (als Ausdruck der Vermutung)

es wird um die 80 Euro kosten — it will cost around 80 euros

sie werden [wohl] im Garten sein — they are probably in the garden

er wird doch nicht [etwa] krank sein? — he wouldn't be ill, would he?

sie wird schon wissen, was sie tut — she must know what she's doing

2) (zur Bildung des Passivs) be

du wirst gerufen — you are being called

er wurde gebeten/ist gebeten worden — he was asked

ihm wurde gesagt — he was told

es wurde gelacht/gesungen/getanzt — there was laughter/singing/dancing

unser Haus wird renoviert — our house is being renovated

3) (zur Umschreibung des Konjunktivs)

was würdest du tun? — what would you do?

würden Sie bitte...? — would you please...?

* * *

(Zukunft) aux.

will aux. v.

(§ p.,pp.: wurde, ist geworden)

= to become v.

(§ p.,p.p.: became, become)

to grow v.

(§ p.,p.p.: grew, grown)

Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > werden
109 etapa

f.

stage.

las últimas etapas the final stages

por etapas in stages

quemar etapas to come on in leaps and bounds, to progress rapidly

está pasando una mala etapa he's going through a bad patch

etapa ciclista stage (of cycle race)

* * *

etapa

► nombre femenino

1 period, stage

2 (parada) stop, stage

■ la primera etapa es Zaragoza the first stop is Zaragoza

3 DEPORTE leg, stage

\

FRASEOLOGÍA

por etapas in stages

quemar etapas figurado to get on in leaps and bounds

* * *

noun f.

stage

* * *

SF

1) [de viaje] stage

en pequeñas etapas — in easy stages

- quemar etapas

2) (=fase) stage, phase

desarrollo por etapas — phased development, development in stages

la segunda etapa del plan — the second phase of the plan

una adquisición proyectada por etapas — a phased takeover

lo haremos por etapas — we'll do it gradually o in stages

3) (Dep) leg, lap

4) (Mil) stopping place

5) [de cohete] stage

cohete de tres etapas — 3-stage rocket

* * *

femenino

1) ( en viaje) stage; (en ciclismo, rally) leg, stage

por etapas — in stages

2) ( de proceso) stage, phase

la etapa más feliz de mi vida — the best o happiest time of my life

* * *

= phase, stage, step, chapter.

Ex. This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.

Ex. The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.

Ex. The first step in assigning intellectual responsibility to a corporate body must be a definition of a corporate body.

Ex. The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.

----

* eliminar por etapas = phase out.

* empezar una nueva etapa en la vida = turn over + a new page, turn over + a new leaf.

* en tres etapas = three-step.

* en varias etapas = multistage [multi-stage], multi-step.

* etapa anterior a la impresión = prepress [pre-press].

* etapa de desarollo = stage of development.

* etapa de la vida = life stage.

* etapa de planificación = planning stage.

* etapa final = output stage.

* etapa inicial = input stage.

* llegar a una etapa = reach + point.

* marcar una etapa = mark + a stage.

* por etapas = staged.

* primera etapa = early days.

* subetapa = sub-stage.

* superar la etapa de = move on from.

* volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.

* * *

femenino

1) ( en viaje) stage; (en ciclismo, rally) leg, stage

por etapas — in stages

2) ( de proceso) stage, phase

la etapa más feliz de mi vida — the best o happiest time of my life

* * *

= phase, stage, step, chapter.

Ex: This planning phase involves moving from a vague impression that a thesaurus might be useful to a fairly precise profile for the thesaurus.

Ex: The first stage in the choice of access points must be the definition of an author.

Ex: The first step in assigning intellectual responsibility to a corporate body must be a definition of a corporate body.

Ex: The late 18th century heyday of aristocratic libraries was a brief but important chapter in Hungarian library history.

* eliminar por etapas = phase out.

* empezar una nueva etapa en la vida = turn over + a new page, turn over + a new leaf.

* en tres etapas = three-step.

* en varias etapas = multistage [multi-stage], multi-step.

* etapa anterior a la impresión = prepress [pre-press].

* etapa de desarollo = stage of development.

* etapa de la vida = life stage.

* etapa de planificación = planning stage.

* etapa final = output stage.

* etapa inicial = input stage.

* llegar a una etapa = reach + point.

* marcar una etapa = mark + a stage.

* por etapas = staged.

* primera etapa = early days.

* subetapa = sub-stage.

* superar la etapa de = move on from.

* volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.

* * *

etapa

feminine

A (en un viaje, recorrido) stage; (en ciclismo, un rally) leg, stage

hicimos el viaje en varias etapas/por etapas we did the trip in stages

Compuesto:

etapa prólogo

opening time-trial

B (de un proceso) stage, phase

la etapa más feliz de mi vida the best o happiest time o period of my life

C (de un cohete, misil) stage

* * *

etapa sustantivo femenino
stage;
◊ por etapas in stages;

la etapa más feliz de mi vida the best o happiest time of my life
etapa sustantivo femenino stage, phase: haremos el trabajo por etapas, we'll do the work in stages

' etapa' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
atravesar
- contrarreloj
- estadio
- extensa
- extenso
- fase
- interfase
- transición
- clasificación
- clasificar
- entrada
- entrar
- intermedio
- ronda
- superar
- trámite
English:
degree
- early
- growing
- lap
- leg
- stage
- go
- past
- preliminary

* * *

etapa nf

1. [trayecto, fase] stage;

está pasando una mala etapa he's going through a bad patch;

por etapas in stages;

la reforma educativa será implantada por etapas the educational reforms will be introduced in stages

2. Dep stage;

una vuelta ciclista por etapas a staged cycle race

Comp
etapa ciclista stage [of cycle race];
etapa contrarreloj [en ciclismo] time trial;

etapa de montaña [en ciclismo] mountain stage;

etapa prólogo [en ciclismo] prologue

* * *

etapa

f

1 DEP stage, leg

2 stage;

por etapas in stages;

quemar etapas cut corners

* * *

etapa nf

fase: stage, phase

* * *

etapa n stage

Spanish-English dictionary > etapa
110 terreno

adj.

earthly, worldly.

m.

1 lot, terrain, land, patch.

2 soil, ground.

3 terrain, ground.

* * *

terreno

► adjetivo

1 worldly, earthly

► nombre masculino terreno

1 (tierra) land, piece of land, ground; (solar) plot, site

2 GEOGRAFÍA terrain

3 AGRICULTURA (de cultivo) soil; (campo) field

4 DEPORTE field, ground

5 figurado (esfera de acción) field, sphere

\

FRASEOLOGÍA

ceder terreno figurado to give way

conocer el terreno figurado to be familiar with something

estar en su propio terreno figurado to be on home ground

ganar terreno / perder terreno to gain ground / lose ground

hacer algo sobre el terreno to do something on the spot 2 figurado to improvise something

saber uno el terreno que pisa figurado to know what one's doing

preparar el terreno figurado to pave the way, prepare the ground

ser terreno abonado (para algo) figurado to be receptive (to something)

terreno conocido figurado familiar ground

————————

terreno

► nombre masculino

1 (tierra) land, piece of land, ground; (solar) plot, site

2 GEOGRAFÍA terrain

3 AGRICULTURA (de cultivo) soil; (campo) field

4 DEPORTE field, ground

5 figurado (esfera de acción) field, sphere

* * *

noun m.

1) terrain

2) ground, land

3) plot

* * *

1. ADJ

1) (Rel) [bienes] earthly

esta vida terrena — this earthly life liter

2) (Bio, Geol) terrestrial

2. SM

1) (=extensión de tierra) [gen] land; (=parcela) piece of land, plot of land

30 hectáreas de terreno — 30 hectares of land

es terreno municipal — it is council land

los terrenos pertenecientes al museo — the land belonging to the museum

vender unos terrenos — to sell some land

nos hemos comprado un terreno en las afueras — we've bought a piece of land o plot of land o some land on the outskirts of the city

el terreno que antes ocupaba la fábrica — the site the factory used to be on

2) [explicando sus características] (=relieve) ground, terrain; (=composición) soil, land

los accidentes del terreno — the unevenness of the ground o terrain

un terreno pedregoso — stony ground o terrain

estamos sobre un terreno arenoso — we're on sandy soil o land

vehículos todo terreno — all-terrain vehicles

3) (=campo)

a) [de estudio] field

en el terreno de la química — in the field of chemistry

ese no es mi terreno — that's not my field

b) [de actividad] sphere, field

el gobierno debe tomar medidas urgentes en el terreno económico — the government must take urgent measures in the economic sphere o field

la competencia de las empresas extranjeras en todos los terrenos — competition from foreign companies in all areas

en cuanto a las pensiones, se ha avanzado poco en este terreno — as for pensions, little progress has been made in this area

este caso entra en el terreno militar — this case is a military matter

4)

- ceder terreno

- pisar terreno firme

- ganar terreno

- perder terreno

- saber o conocer el terreno que se pisa

- preparar el terreno

- vencer a algn en su propio terreno

- recuperar terreno

- sobre el terreno

analizarán la situación sobre el terreno — they will analyse the situation on the ground

resolveremos el problema sobre el terreno — we will solve the problem as we go along

terreno abonado —

es terreno abonado para el vicio — it is a breeding ground for vice

dichas tendencias han encontrado el terreno abonado entre la juventud — these trends have found a fertile breeding ground amongst the young

este país es terreno abonado para las inversiones extranjeras — this country provides rich pickings for foreign investment

- llamar a algn a terreno

terreno de pruebas — testing-ground

5) (Dep)

empataron en su terreno — they drew at home

perdieron en su propio terreno — they lost on their home ground

el equipo tuvo una nueva derrota fuera de su terreno — the team suffered a fresh defeat away (from home)

terreno de juego — pitch, field

* * *
I
- na adjetivo

a) (Relig) earthly

b) ( no marino o aéreo) terrestrial (frml), land (before n)
II
masculino

1) (lote, parcela) plot of land, lot (AmE)

heredó unos terrenos en Sonora — she inherited some land in Sonora

un terreno plantado de viñas — a field planted with vines

el terreno cuesta tanto como la casa — the land costs as much as the house

el terreno llega hasta el río — the land o plot o lot extends as far as the river

- terreno de juego

2) ( extensión de tierra) land

una casa con mucho terreno — a house with a lot of land

3)

a) (Geog) ( refiriéndose al relieve) terrain; ( refiriéndose a la composición) land, soil

allanarle el terreno a alguien — to smooth the way o path for somebody

ceder/ganar/perder terreno — to give/gain/lose ground

estar en su (propio) terreno — to be on one's own ground

minarle or socavarle el terreno a alguien — to cut the ground from under somebody's feet

pisar terreno firme/peligroso — to tread on safe/dangerous ground

prepararle el terreno a alguien/algo — to pave the way for somebody/something

recuperar terreno — to recover lost ground

sobre el terreno: estudiar sobre el terreno una situación to make an on-the-spot assessment of a situation; haremos planes sobre el terreno we'll plan things as we go along; tantear el terreno — to see how the land lies

b) (Geol) terrane, terrain

- terreno abonado or propicio

- terreno conocido

4) (esfera, campo de acción) sphere, field

en el terreno laboral — at work

en el terreno de las artes — in the arts

* * *

(n.) = arena, land, turf, terrain, land area, ground, plot of land, piece of land

Ex. This shifts the responsibility for headings and their arrangement into the arena of cataloguers and indexers.

Ex. Until recently all libraries and some architects have maintained that an academic library should be capable of extension and that land should be reserved for future expansion.

Ex. Librarians are losing the war for electronic professional turf.

Ex. These surveyors reported on terrain character and presence of wood, water and forage, and studied Indian tribal customs and languages.

Ex. Over 17% of Botswana's land area has been set-aside as national parks and game reserves.

Ex. A profile is a scale representation of the intersection of a vertical surface with the surface of the ground.

Ex. The core of readers and borrowers of agricultural literature are pensioners wanting to improving cultivation of their small private plots of land.

Ex. So it is important that every piece of land is divided by a boundary to show the demarcation.

* * *
I
- na adjetivo

a) (Relig) earthly

b) ( no marino o aéreo) terrestrial (frml), land (before n)
II
masculino

1) (lote, parcela) plot of land, lot (AmE)

heredó unos terrenos en Sonora — she inherited some land in Sonora

un terreno plantado de viñas — a field planted with vines

el terreno cuesta tanto como la casa — the land costs as much as the house

el terreno llega hasta el río — the land o plot o lot extends as far as the river

- terreno de juego

2) ( extensión de tierra) land

una casa con mucho terreno — a house with a lot of land

3)

a) (Geog) ( refiriéndose al relieve) terrain; ( refiriéndose a la composición) land, soil

allanarle el terreno a alguien — to smooth the way o path for somebody

ceder/ganar/perder terreno — to give/gain/lose ground

estar en su (propio) terreno — to be on one's own ground

minarle or socavarle el terreno a alguien — to cut the ground from under somebody's feet

pisar terreno firme/peligroso — to tread on safe/dangerous ground

prepararle el terreno a alguien/algo — to pave the way for somebody/something

recuperar terreno — to recover lost ground

sobre el terreno: estudiar sobre el terreno una situación to make an on-the-spot assessment of a situation; haremos planes sobre el terreno we'll plan things as we go along; tantear el terreno — to see how the land lies

b) (Geol) terrane, terrain

- terreno abonado or propicio

- terreno conocido

4) (esfera, campo de acción) sphere, field

en el terreno laboral — at work

en el terreno de las artes — in the arts

* * *

terreno¹

¹ = arena, land, turf, terrain, land area, ground, plot of land, piece of land.

Ex: This shifts the responsibility for headings and their arrangement into the arena of cataloguers and indexers.

Ex: Until recently all libraries and some architects have maintained that an academic library should be capable of extension and that land should be reserved for future expansion.

Ex: Librarians are losing the war for electronic professional turf.

Ex: These surveyors reported on terrain character and presence of wood, water and forage, and studied Indian tribal customs and languages.

Ex: A profile is a scale representation of the intersection of a vertical surface with the surface of the ground.

Ex: The core of readers and borrowers of agricultural literature are pensioners wanting to improving cultivation of their small private plots of land.

Ex: So it is important that every piece of land is divided by a boundary to show the demarcation.

* andar por terreno peligroso = skate + on thin ice, tread on + dangerous ground.

* andar por terreno resbaladizo = skate + on thin ice, tread on + dangerous ground.

* caer en terreno baldío = fall on + barren ground, fall on + fallow ground.

* caer en terreno pedregoso = fall on + stony ground.

* ceder terreno = yield + ground, lose + ground.

* con terrenos cedidos por el gobierno = land grant [land-grant].

* en terreno conocido = on familiar grounds.

* en terreno peligroso = on shaky grounds.

* estar moviéndose en terreno seguro = be on secure ground.

* ganar terreno = gain + ground, make + headway.

* gestión de terrenos = land management.

* invadir el terreno (de Alguien) = encroach on/upon + Posesivo + domain.

* limpiar el terreno de árboles = clear + land.

* motocicleta todo terreno = dirt bike.

* moverse en terreno desconocido = be out of + Posesivo + depth, be in over + Posesivo + head.

* no ceder terreno = stand + Posesivo + ground.

* parcela de terreno = plot of land, piece of land.

* perder terreno = lose + ground.

* pisar terreno desconocido = be out of + Posesivo + depth, be in over + Posesivo + head.

* preparación del terreno eliminando todo tipo de obstáculos = land-clearing.

* preparar el terreno = pave + the way (for/towards/to), set + the scene, clear + the path, smooth + the way, set + the stage, pave + the path (for/towards/to), lay + the groundwork for, pave + the road (for/towards/to), clear + the way.

* preparar el terreno para = lead up to, smooth + the path of, clear + the ground for, fertilise + the ground for.

* prueba sobre el terreno = field test, field trial.

* sobre el terreno = on the ground.

* tantear el terreno = put + feeler out, test + the water.

* terreno conocido = familiar grounds.

* terreno cultivable pequeño = croft.

* terreno de deportes = sport arena.

* terreno de juego = playing field, pitch.

* terreno de pruebas = testing ground.

* terreno desconocido = uncharted territory, uncharted waters, unchartered territory, unchartered waters.

* terreno elevado = high ground.

* terreno en construcción = building site.

* terreno firme = firm ground, safe ground, solid ground.

* terreno inhóspito = inhospitable terrain.

* terreno maderero = timberland.

* terreno nada fértil = stony ground.

* terreno neutral = neutral ground.

* terreno para construir = building site.

* terreno pedegroso = stony ground.

* terreno peligroso = on thin ice, slippery ground, on dangerous ground.

* terreno poco definido = grey area [gray area].

* terreno resbaladizo = on thin ice, slippery ground, on dangerous ground.

* terrenos = site, landed estate, grounds.

* terrenos de la finca = estate grounds.

* terreno seguro = safe ground, solid ground.

* terreno sin construir = vacant lot.

* terrenos sin construir = vacant land.

* vehículo todoterreno = all-terrain vehicle.

* vencer a Alguien en su propio terreno = beat + Nombre + at + Posesivo + own game.

terreno²

² = earthly [earthlier -comp., earthliest -sup.], worldly [worldlier -comp., worldliest -sup.].

Ex: After that I could never pass a dead man without stopping to gaze on his face, stripped by death of that earthly patina which masks the living soul.

Ex: There exist sets of duality in this philosophy; body versus soul, worldly versus unworldly and life versus salvation.

(n.) = arena, land, turf, terrain, land area, ground, plot of land, piece of land

Ex: This shifts the responsibility for headings and their arrangement into the arena of cataloguers and indexers.

Ex: Until recently all libraries and some architects have maintained that an academic library should be capable of extension and that land should be reserved for future expansion.

Ex: Librarians are losing the war for electronic professional turf.

Ex: These surveyors reported on terrain character and presence of wood, water and forage, and studied Indian tribal customs and languages.

Ex: Over 17% of Botswana's land area has been set-aside as national parks and game reserves.

Ex: A profile is a scale representation of the intersection of a vertical surface with the surface of the ground.

Ex: The core of readers and borrowers of agricultural literature are pensioners wanting to improving cultivation of their small private plots of land.

Ex: So it is important that every piece of land is divided by a boundary to show the demarcation.

* * *

terreno¹ -na

adjective

1 ( Relig) earthly

nuestra vida terrena our earthly life, our life on earth

2 (no marino o aéreo) terrestrial ( frml), land ( before n)

terreno²

masculine

A (lote, parcela) plot of land, lot ( AmE)

heredó unos terrenos en Sonora she inherited some land in Sonora

un terreno plantado de viñas a field o an area of land planted with vines

el terreno cuesta tanto como la casa the land costs as much as the house

quieren construir en esos terrenos they want to build on that land o site

el terreno llega hasta el río the land o plot o lot extends as far as the river

Compuesto:

terreno de juego

field, pitch ( BrE)

Escocia perdió frente a Gales en su propio terreno (de juego) Scotland lost at home to Wales, Scotland lost to Wales despite having home-field advantage ( AmE), Scotland lost to Wales on their home ground ( BrE)

B (extensión de tierra) land

compraron una casa con mucho terreno they bought a house with a lot of land

C

1 ( Geog) (refiriéndose al relieve) terrain; (refiriéndose a la composición) land, soil

un terreno montañoso mountainous terrain

los accidentes del terreno the features of the landscape o terrain

un terreno pantanoso marshy land, a marshy terrain

un terreno bueno para el cultivo del trigo good land o soil for growing wheat

allanarle el terreno a algn to smooth the way o path for sb

ceder/ganar/perder terreno to give/gain/lose ground

estar en su (propio) terreno to be on one's own ground

llamar a algn a terreno ( Chi fam); to pull sb up ( colloq)

minarle or socavarle el terreno a algn to cut the ground from under sb's feet

pisar terreno firme/peligroso to tread on safe/dangerous ground

prepararle el terreno a algn/algo to pave the way for sb/sth

recuperar terreno to recover lost ground

sobre el terreno: para estudiar sobre el terreno la situación to make an on-the-spot o an in situ assessment of the situation

iremos haciendo planes sobre el terreno we'll plan things as we go along

tantear el terreno to see how the land lies

2 ( Geol) terrane, terrain

Compuestos:

● terreno abonado or propicio

es terreno abonado or propicio para la delincuencia it is a breeding ground for crime

es un terreno abonado or propicio para la especulación it gives rise to a great deal of speculation

● terreno conocido

familiar ground

para él ya es terreno conocido he's on familiar ground, it's familiar ground to him

D (esfera, campo de acción) sphere, field

en el terreno laboral at work

ejerció una gran influencia en el terreno de las artes he was a major influence in the arts

* * *

terreno 1
◊ -na adjetivo (Relig) earthly

terreno 2 sustantivo masculino
1
a) (lote, parcela) plot of land, lot (AmE);

◊ heredó unos terrenos en Sonora she inherited some land in Sonora;

un terreno plantado de viñas a field planted with vines;
terreno de juego field, pitch
b) ( extensión de tierra) land;

◊ una casa con mucho terreno a house with a lot of land

2 (Geog) ( refiriéndose al relieve) terrain;
( refiriéndose a la composición) land, soil;
◊ un terreno fértil fertile land

3 (esfera, campo de acción) sphere, field;
◊ en el terreno político within the field of politics

terreno,-a
I adjetivo ➣ terrenal
II sustantivo masculino
1 Geol terrain
2 (extensión de tierra) (piece of) land, ground: quiere cultivar su terreno, he wants to cultivate his land
tiene un terreno en Valencia, he has land in Valencia
un terreno arenoso, a sandy soil
3 fig (campo de acción, investigación) field, sphere
4 Dep terreno (de juego), field, ground
♦ Locuciones: le gusta saber qué terreno pisa, he likes to know where he stands
ganar/perder terreno, to gain/lose ground
preparar el terreno, to prepare the ground
sobre el terreno, as one goes along
' terreno' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
acotar
- adyacente
- allanar
- alta
- alto
- badén
- depresión
- elevación
- escabrosa
- escabroso
- finca
- grieta
- inclinación
- juego
- margen
- monte
- movediza
- movedizo
- nacional
- ondulada
- ondulado
- orientar
- parque
- pelada
- pelado
- pendiente
- polígono
- regar
- reseca
- reseco
- revalorizar
- salar
- salvaje
- sanear
- solar
- terrena
- terruño
- tierra
- triangular
- abrupto
- accidentado
- accidente
- adaptar
- agreste
- alameda
- altibajos
- anegar
- arbolado
- arenoso
- asentar
English:
dirt bike
- estate
- extend
- feeler
- flatten
- foresight
- gain
- gain on
- ground
- gulley
- gully
- ice
- jeep
- level
- lose
- lot
- out-of-bounds
- parcel
- patch
- pitch
- plot
- recreation ground
- rent
- rugged
- ruggedness
- scout
- spread
- stretch
- survey
- tenure
- terrain
- testing ground
- tract
- uneven
- unfold
- way
- area
- common
- country
- ease
- green
- mostly
- piece
- preserve
- property
- province
- reclaim
- site

* * *

terreno, -a

♦ adj
Formal [vida] earthly; [bienes, preocupaciones] worldly
♦ nm

1. [suelo] land;
[por su relieve] terrain; [por su composición, utilidad agrícola] soil;
grandes extensiones de terreno large tracts of land;

terreno montañoso/abrupto mountainous/rugged terrain;

terreno arenoso/volcánico sandy/volcanic soil;

el terreno era irregular the ground was uneven;

Comp

ser terreno abonado (para algo) to be fertile ground (for sth)

Comp
terreno agrícola farmland;
terreno cultivable arable land;

terreno edificable land suitable for development;

terreno rústico land unsuitable for development;

terreno urbanizable land suitable for development;

terreno no urbanizable land unsuitable for development

2. [parcela, solar] plot (of land);

tenemos unos terrenos en el pueblo we have some land in the village

3. [en deportes]
terreno (de juego) field, Br pitch;

los jugadores saltaron al terreno de juego the players came out onto the field o Br pitch

4. [ámbito] field;

en el terreno de la música/medicina in the field of music/medicine;

tiene muchos problemas en el terreno personal she has a lot of problems in her private life;

ha habido muchos avances en este terreno there have been considerable advances in this field

5. [territorio] ground;

estar o [m5] encontrarse en su propio terreno to be on home ground;

estar en o [m5]pisar terreno conocido/desconocido/firme to be on familiar/unfamiliar/solid ground;

llevar algo/a alguien a su terreno: sabe llevar las conversaciones a su terreno he knows how to steer conversations round to what interests him;

la campeona supo llevar a su terreno a la tenista holandesa the champion was able to impose her own terms on the Dutch player;

sabe llevar cualquier canción a su terreno he is capable of making any song his own;

Comp

ceder terreno to give ground;

Comp

ganar terreno to gain ground;

le está ganando terreno a su rival he's gaining ground on his rival;

Comp

perder terreno (ante alguien) to lose ground (to sb);

Comp

preparar el terreno (para algo/a alguien) to pave the way (for sth/sb);

Comp

reconocer o [m5] tantear el terreno to see how the land lies;

Comp

sabe el terreno que pisa she knows what she is about;

Comp

sobre el terreno: estudiar algo sobre el terreno to study something in the field;

resolveremos los problemas sobre el terreno we'll solve the problems as we go along

* * *

terreno

I adj earthly, worldly

II m land; fig

field;

un terreno a lot, Br a plot o

piece of land;

sobre el terreno in the field;

ganar/perder terreno fig gain/lose ground;

tantear el terreno fig see how the land lies;

llevar a alguien a su terreno get s.o. on one’s home ground;

pisar terreno resbaladizo fig be on slippery ground

* * *

terreno nm

1) : terrain

2) suelo: earth, ground

3) : plot, tract of land

4)

perder terreno : to lose ground

5)

preparar el terreno : to pave the way

* * *

terreno n

1. (tierra) land

van a construir en ese terreno they going to build on that land

Carlos se ha comprado un terreno Carlos has bought a piece of land

2. (de una actividad) field

el terreno de la literatura the field of literature

terreno de juego pitch

Spanish-English dictionary > terreno
111 gestazione

gestazione s.f.

1 (biol.) gestation

2 (fig.) ( elaborazione) gestation, preparation: un romanzo in gestazione, a novel in progress.

* * *
[dʒestat'tsjone]
sostantivo femminile

1) fisiol. gestation, pregnancy

2) fig. gestation, development

in gestazione — [ opera] in gestation o development

* * *

gestazione

/dʒestat'tsjone/

sostantivo f.

1 fisiol. gestation, pregnancy

2 fig. gestation, development; in gestazione [ opera] in gestation o development.

Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > gestazione
112 развитие

1) development
2) (степень зрелости) maturity
* * *

development

* * *

1) development; evolution 2) maturity

* * *

cultivation

developing

development

education

elaboration

evolution

evolving

extension

germination

growth

march

progress

tenor

uncurling

upgrowth

Новый русско-английский словарь > развитие
113 стадия развития

1) Engineering: stage of development

2) Economy: development stage

3) Metallurgy: stage of progress

4) Psychology: moment

5) Ecology: developmental stage

6) Advertising: evolution stage

7) Management: stage development

8) Karachaganak: maturity stage (напр. технологии - Several new reservoir technologies have been applied to Karachaganak in the last years, which currently are at different stages of maturity.)

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > стадия развития
114 развој

evolution
————————
development
————————
development, evolution, progress, advance, growth
————————
development; evolution

Македонско-англиски речник > развој
115 Varian, Russell Harrison

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

[br]

b. 24 April 1898 Washington, DC, USA

d. 28 July 1959 Juneau, Alaska, USA

[br]

American physicist who, with his brother Sigurd Varian and others, developed the klystron.

[br]

After attending schools in Palo Alto and Halcyon, Russell Varian went to Stanford University, gaining his BA in 1925 and his MA in 1927 despite illness and being dyslexic. His family being in need of financial help, he first worked for six months for Bush Electric in San Francisco and then for an oil company in Texas, returning to San Francisco in 1930 to join Farnsworth's Television Laboratory. After a move to Philadelphia, in 1933 the laboratory closed and Russell tried to take up a PhD course at Stanford but was rejected, so he trained as a teacher. However, although he did some teaching at Stanford it was not to be his career, for in 1935 he joined his brothers Sigurd and Eric in the setting up of a home laboratory.

There, with William Hansen, a former colleague of Russell's at Stanford, they worked on the development of microwave oscillators, based on some of the latter's ideas. By 1937 they had made sufficient progress on an electron velocity-bunching tube, which they called the klystron, to obtain an agreement with the university to provide laboratory facilities in return for a share of any proceeds. By August that year they were able to produce continuous power at a wavelength of 13 cm. Clearly needing greater resources to develop and manufacture the tube, and with a possible war looming, a deal was struck with the Sperry Gyroscope Company to finance the work, which was transferred to the East Coast.

In 1946, after the death of his first wife, Russell returned to Palo Alto, and in 1948 the brothers and Hansen founded Varian Associates to make microwave tubes for transmitters and linear accelerators and nuclear magnetic-resonance detectors. Subsequent research also resulted in the development of a satellite-borne magnetometer for measuring the earth's magnetic field.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Honorary DSc Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute 1943. Franklin Institute Medal.

Bibliography

1939, with S.F.Varian, "High frequency oscillator and amplifier", Journal of Applied Physics 10:321 (describes the klystron).

Further Reading

J.R.Pierce, 1962, "History of the microwave tube art", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 979 (provides background to development of the klystron).

D.Varian, 1983, The Inventor and the Pilot (biographies of the brothers).

See also: Varian, Sigurd Fergus

KF

Biographical history of technology > Varian, Russell Harrison
116 Williamson, David Theodore Nelson

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Recording

[br]

b. 15 February 1923 Edinburgh, Scotland

d. 1992 Italy

[br]

Scottish engineer, inventor of the Williamson Amplifier and computer-controlled machine tools.

[br]

D.T.N.Williamson was educated at George Heriot's School, Edinburgh, and studied mechanical engineering at the University of Edinburgh and electrical engineering at Heriot-Watt College (now Heriot-Watt University), Edinburgh. He joined the MO Valve Company in London in 1943 and worked in his spare time on improving the sound reproduction for gramophones, and in 1946 invented the "Williamson Amplifier".

That same year Williamson returned to Edinburgh as a development engineer with Ferranti Ltd, where he was employed in developing computer-controlled machining systems. In 1961 he was appointed Director of Research and Development at Molins Ltd, where he continued work on computer-controlled machine tools. He invented the Molins System 24, which employed a number of machine tools, all under computer control, and is generally acknowledged as a significant step in the development of manufacturing systems. In 1974 he joined Rank Xerox and became Director of Research before taking early retirement to live in Italy. Between 1954 and 1979 he served on numerous committees relating to computer-aided design, manufacturing technology and mechanical engineering in general.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1968.

Bibliography

Williamson was author of several papers and articles, and contributed to the Electronic

Engineers' Reference Book (1959), Progress in Automation (1960) and the Numerical Control Handbook (1968).

RTS

Biographical history of technology > Williamson, David Theodore Nelson
117 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
118 gelişme

"1. developing, development, growing up, growth; growing healthy; maturing. 2. development, making progress, improvement. 3. lit. development (of plot, theme, argument, thesis, etc.). -ler developments, events, happenings."

Saja Türkçe - İngilizce Sözlük > gelişme
119 региональное развитие
1. regional development
региональное развитие
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

regional development
The progress or advancement for a large geographical territory or a designated division of a country or state, particularly in economic growth that leads to modernization or industrialization. (Source: RHW)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- regional development
DE
- Regionalentwicklung
FR
- développement régional
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > региональное развитие
120 экологическое развитие
1. environmental development
экологическое развитие
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

environmental development
The growth, progress or advancement in matters of ecological concern. (Source: ISEP)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- environmental development
DE
- Umweltentwicklung
FR
- développement environnemental
Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > экологическое развитие

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