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61 Halske, Johann Georg
[br]b. 30 July 1814 Hamburg, Germanyd. 18 March 1890 Berlin, Germany[br]German engineer who introduced precision methods into the manufacture of electrical equipment; co-founder of Siemens \& Halske.[br]Halske moved to Berlin when he was a young man, and in 1844 was working for the university, at first independently and then jointly with F. Bötticher, developing and building electric medical appliances. In 1845 he met Werner von Siemens and together they became founder members of the Berlin Physics Society. It was in Halske's workshop that Siemens, assisted by the skill of the former, was able to work out his inventions in telegraphy. In 1847 the two men entered into partnership to manufacture telegraph equipment, laying the foundations of the successful firm of Siemens \& Halske. At the outset, before Werner von Siemens gave up his army career, Halske acted as the sole manager of the firm and was also involved in testing the products. Inventions they developed included electric measuring instruments and railway signalling equipment, and they installed many telegraph lines, notably those for the Russian Government. When gutta-percha became available on the market, the two men soon developed an extrusion process for applying this new material to copper conductors. To the disappointment of Halske, who was opposed to mass production, the firm introduced series production and piece wages in 1857. The expansion of the business, particularly into submarine cable laying, caused some anxiety to Halske, who left the firm on amicable terms in 1867. He then worked for a few years developing the Arts and Crafts Museum in Berlin and became a town councillor.[br]Further ReadingS. von Weihr and H.Götzeler, 1983, The Siemens Company. Its Historical Role in the Progress of Electrical Engineering 1847–1983, Berlin (provides a full account).Neue Deutsche Biographie, 1966, Vol. 7, Berlin, pp. 572–3.S.von Weiher, 1972–3, "The Siemens brothers, pioneers of the electrical age in Europe", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 45:1–11.GW -
62 Jobs, Steven Paul
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 24 February 1955 San Francisco, California, USA[br]American engineer who, with Stephen Wozniak, built the first home computer.[br]Moving with his family to Mountain View, Palo Alto, in 1960, Jobs entered Homestead High School, Cupertino, in 1968. At about the same time he joined the Explorers' Club for young engineers set up by Hewlett-Packard Company. As a result of this contact, three years later he met up with Stephen Wozniak, who was working at Hewlett-Packard and helped him with the construction of the first home computer based on the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. In 1973 he went to Reid College, Portland, Oregon, to study engineering, but he dropped out in the second semester and spent time in India. On his return he obtained a job with Atari to design video games, but he soon met up again with Wozniak, who had been unable to interest Hewlett-Packard in commercial development of his home computer. Together they therefore founded Apple Computer Company to make and market it, and found a willing buyer in the Byte Shop chain store. The venture proved successful, and with the help of a financial backer, Mike Markkula, a second version, the Apple II, was developed in 1976. With Jobs as Chairman, the company experienced a phenomenal growth and by 1983 had 4,700 employees and an annual turnover of US$983 million. The company then began to run into difficulties and John Sculley, a former president of Pepsi-Cola, was brought in to manage the business while Jobs concentrated on developing new computers, including the Apple Macintosh. Eventually a power struggle developed, and with Sculley now Chairman and Chief Executive, Jobs resigned in 1985 to set up his own computer company, NeXt.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFirst National Technology Medal (with Wozniak) 1985.Further ReadingJ.S.Young, 1988, Steve Jobs: The Journey is the Reward: Scott Foresman \& Co. (includes a biography and a detailed account of Apple Company).M.Moritz, 1984, The Little Kingdom. The Private Story of Apple Computers.KF -
63 Welte, Edwin
SUBJECT AREA: Recording[br]b. 1876 Germanyd. after 1925[br]German instrument maker who developed piano-music recording methods for reproducing pianos.[br]He was the third generation of the Freiburg (Germany) firm of M.Welte \& Soehne, music box and orchestrion manufacturers, founded in 1832, and was made a partner in 1901. He was the driving force behind the development and refinement of the reproducing piano, which had an upper-class market from 1905 to c. 1925. With his partner and brother-in-law Karl Bockisch, he also developed recording methods that made it possible to distribute perforated paper rolls representing a reasonably accurate representation of the performance of famous soloists. This is a principle for recording and replay that is totally different from the mechanical recording principle, and at that time the quality was generally regarded as higher than that of mechanical reproduction. However, because of the possibilities of editing, the source value may be less certain. Welte's contribution was the first commercial use of a coded representation of live performances. The Welte patents were licensed to several other player-piano manufacturers.[br]BibliographyGerman patent no. 162,708 (controlling the dynamics of reproduction).Further ReadingQ.D.Bowers, 1972, Encyclopedia of Automatic Musical Instruments, New York: Vestal Press, pp. 319–38 (a good if somewhat uneven account of the Welte involvement in the reproduction of recorded sound).GB-N -
64 European Union
The union of European countries into one single market established under the Treaty of Rome in 1957. (Formerly known as the European Community or EC.) Directives have been developed to standardize member states in Europe into a common market by removing frontier fiscal barriers. -
65 Congo
сущ.общ. (республика) Конго (республика; столица — Браззавиль; государственный язык французский; национальная валюта — франк КФА BEAC)Syn:See:CFA franc BEAC, CFA franc, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Economic and Monetary Community, Central Bank of Central African States, Central African Customs and Economic Union, Central African States Development Bank, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Economic Community of Central African States, African Union, developing countries, less developed countries, lower middle-income countries, severely indebted, Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, IDA country, Sub-Saharan Africa -
66 Costa Rica
общ. Коста-Рика (республика; столица — Сан-Хосе; государственный язык испанский; национальная валюта — коста-риканский колон)See:Costa Rican colon, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Cairns Group, Latin American Economic System, Association of Caribbean States, Central Bank of Costa Rica, developing countries, less developed countries, less indebted, upper middle-income countries, crawling peg, Brady Plan -
67 El Salvador
общ. Сальвадор (республика; столица — Сан-Сальвадор; государственный язык испанский; национальная валюта — сальвадорский колон; в 1994 г. курс колона был привязан к доллару США, с 2001 г. осуществляется программа по постепенному изъятию колонов из обращения и переходу к доллару США; в настоящее время в качестве средства платежа используется как колон, так и доллар США)See:El Salvador colon, dollar 1) Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Association of Caribbean States, Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador, developing countries, less developed countries, moderately indebted, lower middle-income countries -
68 Guatemala
сущ.общ. Гватемала (республика; столица — Гватемала; государственный язык испанский; национальная валюта — кетсал)See:quetzal, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Cairns Group, Association of Caribbean States, Latin American Economic System, Bank of Guatemala, developing countries, less developed countries, less indebted, lower middle-income countries -
69 Honduras
сущ.общ. Гондурас (республика; столица — Тегусигальпа; государственный язык испанский; национальная валюта — лемпира)See:lempira, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Association of Caribbean States, Latin American Economic System, Central Bank of Honduras, developing countries, less developed countries, lower middle-income countries, moderately indebted, Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, IDA country, crawling peg -
70 Iraq
сущ.общ. Ирак (республика; столица — Багдад; государственный язык арабский; национальная валюта — иракский динар)See: -
71 Jordan
сущ.общ. Иордания (королевство; столица — Амман; государственный язык арабский; национальная валюта — иорданский динар)See: -
72 Kenya
сущ.общ. Кения (республика; столица — Найроби; государственные языки английский и суахили; национальная валюта — кенийский шиллинг)See:Kenyan shilling, Commonwealth of Nations, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, East African Community, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, African Union, East African Development Bank, Central Bank of Kenya, developing countries, less developed countries, low-income countries, moderately indebted, IDA country, Sub-Saharan Africa -
73 Libya
сущ.общ. Ливия (республика; столица — Триполи; государственный язык арабский; национальная валюта — ливийский динар)See:Libyan dinar, Arab Monetary Fund, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, Arab Maghreb Union, African Union, League of Arab States, Arab Common Market, developing countries, less developed countries, upper middle-income countries, conventional peg -
74 Mauritius
сущ.общ. Маврикий (республика; столица — Порт-Луи; государственный язык английский; национальная валюта — маврикийская рупия)See:Mauritius rupee, Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents, Commonwealth of Nations, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Southern African Development Community, African Union, Offshore Group of Banking Supervisors, Bank of Mauritius, developing countries, less developed countries, moderately indebted, upper middle-income countries, Sub-Saharan Africa -
75 Namibia
сущ.общ. Намибия (республика; столица — Виндхук; государственные языки африкаанс и английский; национальная валюта — намибийский доллар; официальным платежным средством также является и южноафриканский ранд)See:Namibian dollar, rand а) Common Monetary Agreement, Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents, Multilateral Monetary Agreement, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Commonwealth of Nations, Southern African Development Community, Southern African Customs Union, African Union, Bank of Namibia, Rand zone, developing countries, less developed countries, lower middle-income countries, Sub-Saharan Africa -
76 Nicaragua
сущ.общ. Никарагуа (республика; столица — Манагуа; государственный язык испанский; национальная валюта — кордоба)See:cordoba, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Association of Caribbean States, Latin American Economic System, Central Bank of Nicaragua, developing countries, less developed countries, lower middle-income countries, less indebted, Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, IDA country, crawling peg -
77 selling rate
бирж. курс продавцов [продавца\] (наименьшая цена, по которой продавец готов совершить сделку)Syn:Ant:Costa Rican colon, Central American Bank for Economic Integration, Central American Common Market, Organization of American States, Cairns Group, Latin American Economic System, Association of Caribbean States, Central Bank of Costa Rica, developing countries, less developed countries, less indebted, upper middle-income countries, crawling peg, Brady Plan* * *. . Словарь экономических терминов . -
78 Seychelles
сущ.общ. Сейшельские Острова, Сейшелы (республика; столица — Виктория; государственные языки английский, французский и креольский; национальная валюта — сейшельская рупия)See:Seychelles rupee, Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents, Commonwealth of Nations, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Southern African Development Community, African Union, Central Bank of Seychelles, developing countries, less developed countries, severely indebted, upper middle-income countries, Sub-Saharan Africa -
79 Swaziland
сущ.общ. Свазиленд (королевство; столица — Мбабане; государственные языки свази и английский; национальная валюта — лилангени; курс лилангени привязан к южноафриканскому ранду, который также принимается в качестве платежного средства на территории Свазиленда)See:lilangeni, rand а) Common Monetary Agreement, Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents, Commonwealth of Nations, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Southern African Development Community, Southern African Customs Union, African Union, Central Bank of Swaziland, developing countries, less developed countries, less indebted, lower middle-income countries, Sub-Saharan Africa -
80 Syria
сущ.общ. Сирия (республика; столица — Дамаск; государственный язык арабский; национальная валюта — сирийский фунт)See:
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