-
21 Creativity
Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with DisorderEven to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)[P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity
-
22 프로그래머
n. programmer, one who writes computer programs, one who creates sets of instructions for a computer or other device -
23 computertaal
n. computer language, artificial language used for writing computer programs -
24 внутренний словарь
комп. an internal dictionaryWhen translating computer programs from the programmer's language to machine language, an internal dictionary is first created, and the computer then proceeds with the language conversion based upon a fixed list of vocabulary with a prescribed set of grammatical rules. — При переводе компьютерных программ с языка программиста на машинный язык, вначале создается внутренний словарь, и компьютер затем переходит к преобразованию формы записи, основанной на установленном списке словаря с заданным набором грамматических правил.
Дополнительный универсальный русско-английский словарь > внутренний словарь
-
25 заданный набор
фраз. a prescribed set of smthWhen translating computer programs from the programmer's language to machine language, an internal dictionary is first created, and the computer then proceeds with the language conversion based upon a fixed list of vocabulary with a prescribed set of grammatical rules. — При переводе компьютерных программ с языка программиста на машинный язык, вначале создается внутренний словарь, и компьютер затем переходит к преобразованию формы записи, основанной на установленном списке словаря с заданным набором грамматических правил.
Дополнительный универсальный русско-английский словарь > заданный набор
-
26 преобразование формы записи (данных)
комп.фраз. language conversionWhen translating computer programs from the programmer's language to machine language, an internal dictionary is first created, and the computer then proceeds with the language conversion based upon a fixed list of vocabulary with a prescribed set of grammatical rules. — При переводе компьютерных программ с языка программиста на машинный язык, вначале создается внутренний словарь, и компьютер затем переходит к преобразованию формы записи, основанной на установленном списке словаря с заданным набором грамматических правил.
Дополнительный универсальный русско-английский словарь > преобразование формы записи (данных)
-
27 преобразование формы записи (данных)
комп.фраз. language conversionWhen translating computer programs from the programmer's language to machine language, an internal dictionary is first created, and the computer then proceeds with the language conversion based upon a fixed list of vocabulary with a prescribed set of grammatical rules. — При переводе компьютерных программ с языка программиста на машинный язык, вначале создается внутренний словарь, и компьютер затем переходит к преобразованию формы записи, основанной на установленном списке словаря с заданным набором грамматических правил.
Дополнительный универсальный русско-английский словарь > преобразование формы записи (данных)
-
28 benchmark
Gen Mgta point of reference or standard against which to measure performance. Originally used for a set of computer programs to measure the performance of a computer against similar models, benchmark is now used more generally to describe a measure identified in the context of a benchmarking program against which to evaluate an organization’s performance in a specific area. -
29 появляться
•This effect arises because the materials have a refractive index which varies with...
•Where do these comets come from?
•This theory made its appearance in the late 1960s.
••If relevant symptoms emerge at a later date,...
•Soon high-power pulsed lasers began to emerge as a working system.
•If a defect should develop (or appear) in the cladding,...
•New types of chips are now making their appearance in commercial equipment.
IIРусско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > появляться
-
30 (правовая) охрана программ для ЭВМ и баз данных
Patents: protection of computer programs and data bases (Россия)Универсальный русско-английский словарь > (правовая) охрана программ для ЭВМ и баз данных
-
31 компьютерные программы
1) Information technology: software2) Makarov: computer programs (см. программное обеспечение)Универсальный русско-английский словарь > компьютерные программы
-
32 набор компьютерных программ
Makarov: set of computer programsУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > набор компьютерных программ
-
33 программы для электронных вычислительных машин
General subject: computer programsУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > программы для электронных вычислительных машин
-
34 рассылка
1) General subject: dispatch, distribution, mailout (массовая, по почте/email, например приглашений. mass distribution of mail: a distribution of identical items of mail to a large number of people, especially by e-mail), mailshot, circular, mail merge (function of computer programs to produce individually addressed mailings using a separate address database)2) Computers: postings3) Military: dissemination4) Engineering: delivery, mailing (продукции), sending5) Law: communication (копий)6) Economy: forwarding8) Information technology: mailing list9) EBRD: copies (список лиц и организаций, которым направляются копии документа)10) Makarov: dispatch (печатной продукции), dissemination (приказа) -
35 эксклюзивные права автора или иного правообладателя на использование компьютерных программ и баз данных
Универсальный русско-английский словарь > эксклюзивные права автора или иного правообладателя на использование компьютерных программ и баз данных
-
36 П-156
HE ПРО МЕНЯ (тебя и т. п.) ПИСАНО (-ы) highly coll (predic ( impers or with subj: abstr or concr, often это) fixed WOto be beyond my (your etc) understanding: это не про меня писано - this is (way) above (over) my headthis is too deep for me this is beyond (outside) my ken.Я и не пытаюсь разобраться в этих компьютерных программах - не про меня писано. I don't even try to understand these computer programs - they're way over my head -
37 охрана программ для ЭВМ и баз данных
Patents: (правовая) protection of computer programs and data bases (Россия)Универсальный русско-английский словарь > охрана программ для ЭВМ и баз данных
-
38 не про меня писано
• НЕ ПРО МЕНЯ <тебя и т. п.> ПИСАНО <-ы> highly coll[predic (impers or with subj: abstr or concr, often это); fixed WO]=====⇒ to be beyond my (your etc) understanding:- this is beyond < outside> my ken.♦ Я и не пытаюсь разобраться в этих компьютерных программах - не про меня писано. I don't even try to understand these computer programs - they're way over my headБольшой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > не про меня писано
-
39 קומפקט-דיסק
compact disc, small disk used for storing computerized information (i.e. computer programs, music, etc.) -
40 תקליטור
compact disc, CD-ROM, optical disk, small disc used for storing computerized information (i.e. computer programs, music, etc.)
См. также в других словарях:
Computer programs and the Patent Cooperation Treaty — Computer programs, software and patent law Topics … Wikipedia
Computer Programs Directive — European Union directive: Directive 91/250/EEC Directive on the legal protection of computer programs Made by European Council Made under Art. 100a … Wikipedia
Directive on the legal protection of computer programs — EU directive title=Directive on the legal protection of computer programs number=91/250/EEC madeby=European Council madeunder=Art. 100a OJref=L122, 1991 05 17, pp. 9 ndash;13 made=14 May 1991 commenced=17 May 1991 implementation=1 January 1993… … Wikipedia
Installation (computer programs) — Installation (or setup) of a program (including drivers, plugins, etc.) is the act of putting the program onto a computer system so that it can be executed. Because the requisite process varies for each program and each computer, many programs… … Wikipedia
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs — ( SICP ) is a textbook published in 1985 about general computer programming concepts from MIT Press written by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professors Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, with Julie Sussman. It has been used as the… … Wikipedia
Quantum chemistry computer programs — are used in computational chemistry to implement the methods of quantum chemistry. Most include the Hartree Fock and some post Hartree Fock methods. They may also include density functional theory, molecular mechanics or semi empirical quantum… … Wikipedia
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs — Структура и интерпретация компьютерных программ Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs Автор: Харольд Абельсон, Джеральд Сассман Язык оригинала: английский Оригинал издан: 1985 Серия: The MIT electrical engineering and computer science … Википедия
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs — (SICP) ist ein 1985 bei MIT Press veröffentlichtes Informatik Lehrbuch, welches grundlegende Konzepte der Computerprogrammierung behandelt. Geschrieben wurde es von den MIT Professoren Harold Abelson und Gerald Jay Sussman, sowie Julie Sussman.… … Deutsch Wikipedia
Computer-assisted language learning — (CALL) is succinctly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning .[1] CALL embraces a wide range of ICT applications and approaches to teaching… … Wikipedia
computer science — computer scientist. the science that deals with the theory and methods of processing information in digital computers, the design of computer hardware and software, and the applications of computers. [1970 75] * * * Study of computers, their… … Universalium
Computer music — is a term that was originally used within academia to describe a field of study relating to the applications of computing technology in music composition; particularly that stemming from the Western art music tradition. It includes the theory and … Wikipedia
