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  • 1 когнитивный уровень

    Когнитивные уровни: 1. Сбор информации. 2. Понимание. 3. Применение. 4. Анализ. 5. Синтез. 6. Оценка. — Cognitive levels: 1. Acquisition of information. 2. Comprehension. 3. Application. 4. Analysis. 5. Synthesis. 6. Evaluation.

    уровни налогообложения, различные, применяемые в каждом штате — varying levels of taxation across states

    Russian-English Dictionary "Microeconomics" > когнитивный уровень

  • 2 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 3 esfuerzo

    m.
    1 effort.
    hacer esfuerzos, hacer un esfuerzo to make an effort, to try hard
    estoy haciendo esfuerzos por no llorar I'm trying hard not to cry
    haz un último esfuerzo, ya verás como ahora lo consigues make one last attempt, you'll do it this time!
    sin esfuerzo effortlessly
    2 strain.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: esforzar.
    * * *
    1 effort, endeavour (US endeavor)
    2 (valor) courage, spirit
    \
    hacer un esfuerzo (físico) to make an effort, exert oneself 2 (moral) to try hard, strive
    sin esfuerzo effortlessly
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM
    1) [de fuerza física, intelectual] effort

    sin esfuerzo — effortlessly, without strain

    no hizo el más mínimo esfuerzo por agradar — he made absolutely no effort at all to be nice, he didn't make the slightest effort to be nice

    2) (=vigor) spirit, vigour, vigor (EEUU)
    3) (Mec) stress
    * * *
    masculino effort
    * * *
    = endeavour [endeavor, -USA], labour [labor, -USA], leg work, struggle, effort, toil, elbow grease.
    Ex. Eventually, it came to be recognized that the Classification Research Group's endeavours might be pertinent to the problem of alphabetical indexing.
    Ex. An editor is a person who prepares for publication an item not his own and whose labour may be limited to the preparation of the item for the manufacturer.
    Ex. DOBIS/LIBIS may replace the typewriter, the catalog card, and much leg work, but it cannot replace the decision-making capabilities of the library staff.
    Ex. The struggle to make the library an integral part of the educational process is a long-standing one which has yet to be resolved.
    Ex. For example, with such a system a change of the heading AEROPLANES -- ASSISTED TAKE-OFF in figure 7 would without further effort be reflected in the six associated cross-reference records.
    Ex. Furthermore, the computer can be used, and is already being used, to eliminate drudgery, busywork, and useless toil in library systems.
    Ex. The window frames appeared to have not seen the light of day for over 50 years and were totally caked in dirt -- although with some elbow grease the window came up a treat.
    ----
    * ahorro de esfuerzo = savings in energy, savings in effort.
    * aumentar el esfuerzo = increase + effort.
    * aunar esfuerzos = join + forces, coordinate + efforts, join + hands, pool + efforts, pull together.
    * compartir esfuerzos = share + efforts.
    * concentrar el esfuerzo = concentrate + effort, direct + effort, direct + energy, concentrate + Posesivo + energy.
    * concentrar el esfuerzo en = divert + effort into.
    * con mucho esfuerzo = painfully.
    * conseguir con esfuerzo = mine.
    * consumir esfuerzo = take up + energy.
    * coordinar esfuerzos = coordinate + efforts.
    * dedicación de esfuerzo = expenditure of effort.
    * dedicar el tiempo y el esfuerzo = take + the time and effort.
    * dedicar esfuerzo = expend + effort, spend + effort, devote + energy, give + effort.
    * dedicar todo el esfuerzo del mundo a = put + Posesivo + heart into.
    * demandar mucho esfuerzo por parte de Alguien = tax + Posesivo + imagination.
    * dirigir el esfuerzo = direct + effort, direct + energy.
    * duplicidad de esfuerzos = duplication of effort.
    * empezar a sudar por el esfuerzo = work up + a sweat, work up + a lather.
    * en + Posesivo + esfuerzo de = in + Posesivo + quest for/to.
    * entrar hambre después del esfuerzo = work up + an appetite.
    * entrar sed después del esfuerzo = work up + a thirst.
    * en un esfuerzo por = in an effort to.
    * esfuerzo cognitivo = cognitive overhead.
    * esfuerzo común = concerted effort.
    * esfuerzo conjunto = team effort.
    * esfuerzo de equipo = team effort.
    * esfuerzo denodado = strenuous effort.
    * esfuerzo físico = physical effort.
    * esfuerzo físico humano = human power.
    * esfuerzo + fracasar = effort + founder.
    * esfuerzo + hacer sudar = work up + a sweat, work up + a lather.
    * esfuerzo heroico = all out effort.
    * esfuerzo humano = human energy.
    * esfuerzo intelectual = cognitive overhead, intellectual effort.
    * esfuerzo inútil = wasted energy.
    * esfuerzo mental = cognitive overhead, mental effort.
    * esfuerzo sobrehumano = Herculean effort, Herculanian effort.
    * exigir esfuerzo = take + effort.
    * frustrar el esfuerzo = frustrate + effort.
    * ganar a Alguien sin apenas hacer ningún esfuerzo = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down.
    * hacer Algo con mucho esfuerzo = plod (along/through).
    * hacer el esfuerzo necesario = pull + Posesivo + (own) weight.
    * hacer el último esfuerzo = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * hacer grandes esfuerzos por = take + (great) pains to.
    * hacer un esfuerzo = make + effort.
    * hacer un gran esfuerzo = go out of + Posesivo + way to + Infinitivo.
    * invertir esfuerzo intelectual en = invest + Posesivo + thoughts in.
    * justificar el esfuerzo = justify + the effort.
    * llevar tiempo y esfuerzo = take + time and effort.
    * merecer la pena el esfuerzo = repay + effort.
    * mucho esfuerzo = hard work.
    * necesitar esfuerzo = take + effort.
    * no concentrar el esfuerzo = spread + Nombre + thinly.
    * poner esfuerzo = give + effort.
    * propulsado con el esfuerzo físico humano = human-powered.
    * realizar esfuerzo = exert + effort.
    * realizar un esfuerzo = put forth + effort, make + effort.
    * realizar un esfuerzo común = make + a concerted effort.
    * redirigir el esfuerzo = refocus + effort.
    * redirigir un esfuerzo = divert + impetus.
    * redoblar esfuerzos = redouble + efforts.
    * reducir el esfuerzo = reduce + effort.
    * reorientar el esfuerzo = refocus + effort.
    * sin esfuerzo = effortless, effortlessly.
    * sin esfuerzo alguno = effortlessly.
    * sin ningún esfuerzo = effortlessly.
    * sin ningún esfuerzo mental = thought-free.
    * tener hambre después del esfuerzo = work up + an appetite.
    * tener sed después del esfuerzo = work up + a thirst.
    * tirar dinero y esfuerzo por la borda = be money and effort down the drain.
    * trabajo y esfuerzo = toil and trouble.
    * unir esfuerzos = join + hands.
    * vehículo propulsado por el esfuerzo físico humano = human-powered vehicle.
    * * *
    masculino effort
    * * *
    = endeavour [endeavor, -USA], labour [labor, -USA], leg work, struggle, effort, toil, elbow grease.

    Ex: Eventually, it came to be recognized that the Classification Research Group's endeavours might be pertinent to the problem of alphabetical indexing.

    Ex: An editor is a person who prepares for publication an item not his own and whose labour may be limited to the preparation of the item for the manufacturer.
    Ex: DOBIS/LIBIS may replace the typewriter, the catalog card, and much leg work, but it cannot replace the decision-making capabilities of the library staff.
    Ex: The struggle to make the library an integral part of the educational process is a long-standing one which has yet to be resolved.
    Ex: For example, with such a system a change of the heading AEROPLANES -- ASSISTED TAKE-OFF in figure 7 would without further effort be reflected in the six associated cross-reference records.
    Ex: Furthermore, the computer can be used, and is already being used, to eliminate drudgery, busywork, and useless toil in library systems.
    Ex: The window frames appeared to have not seen the light of day for over 50 years and were totally caked in dirt -- although with some elbow grease the window came up a treat.
    * ahorro de esfuerzo = savings in energy, savings in effort.
    * aumentar el esfuerzo = increase + effort.
    * aunar esfuerzos = join + forces, coordinate + efforts, join + hands, pool + efforts, pull together.
    * compartir esfuerzos = share + efforts.
    * concentrar el esfuerzo = concentrate + effort, direct + effort, direct + energy, concentrate + Posesivo + energy.
    * concentrar el esfuerzo en = divert + effort into.
    * con mucho esfuerzo = painfully.
    * conseguir con esfuerzo = mine.
    * consumir esfuerzo = take up + energy.
    * coordinar esfuerzos = coordinate + efforts.
    * dedicación de esfuerzo = expenditure of effort.
    * dedicar el tiempo y el esfuerzo = take + the time and effort.
    * dedicar esfuerzo = expend + effort, spend + effort, devote + energy, give + effort.
    * dedicar todo el esfuerzo del mundo a = put + Posesivo + heart into.
    * demandar mucho esfuerzo por parte de Alguien = tax + Posesivo + imagination.
    * dirigir el esfuerzo = direct + effort, direct + energy.
    * duplicidad de esfuerzos = duplication of effort.
    * empezar a sudar por el esfuerzo = work up + a sweat, work up + a lather.
    * en + Posesivo + esfuerzo de = in + Posesivo + quest for/to.
    * entrar hambre después del esfuerzo = work up + an appetite.
    * entrar sed después del esfuerzo = work up + a thirst.
    * en un esfuerzo por = in an effort to.
    * esfuerzo cognitivo = cognitive overhead.
    * esfuerzo común = concerted effort.
    * esfuerzo conjunto = team effort.
    * esfuerzo de equipo = team effort.
    * esfuerzo denodado = strenuous effort.
    * esfuerzo físico = physical effort.
    * esfuerzo físico humano = human power.
    * esfuerzo + fracasar = effort + founder.
    * esfuerzo + hacer sudar = work up + a sweat, work up + a lather.
    * esfuerzo heroico = all out effort.
    * esfuerzo humano = human energy.
    * esfuerzo intelectual = cognitive overhead, intellectual effort.
    * esfuerzo inútil = wasted energy.
    * esfuerzo mental = cognitive overhead, mental effort.
    * esfuerzo sobrehumano = Herculean effort, Herculanian effort.
    * exigir esfuerzo = take + effort.
    * frustrar el esfuerzo = frustrate + effort.
    * ganar a Alguien sin apenas hacer ningún esfuerzo = beat + Nombre + hands down, win + hands down.
    * hacer Algo con mucho esfuerzo = plod (along/through).
    * hacer el esfuerzo necesario = pull + Posesivo + (own) weight.
    * hacer el último esfuerzo = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * hacer grandes esfuerzos por = take + (great) pains to.
    * hacer un esfuerzo = make + effort.
    * hacer un gran esfuerzo = go out of + Posesivo + way to + Infinitivo.
    * invertir esfuerzo intelectual en = invest + Posesivo + thoughts in.
    * justificar el esfuerzo = justify + the effort.
    * llevar tiempo y esfuerzo = take + time and effort.
    * merecer la pena el esfuerzo = repay + effort.
    * mucho esfuerzo = hard work.
    * necesitar esfuerzo = take + effort.
    * no concentrar el esfuerzo = spread + Nombre + thinly.
    * poner esfuerzo = give + effort.
    * propulsado con el esfuerzo físico humano = human-powered.
    * realizar esfuerzo = exert + effort.
    * realizar un esfuerzo = put forth + effort, make + effort.
    * realizar un esfuerzo común = make + a concerted effort.
    * redirigir el esfuerzo = refocus + effort.
    * redirigir un esfuerzo = divert + impetus.
    * redoblar esfuerzos = redouble + efforts.
    * reducir el esfuerzo = reduce + effort.
    * reorientar el esfuerzo = refocus + effort.
    * sin esfuerzo = effortless, effortlessly.
    * sin esfuerzo alguno = effortlessly.
    * sin ningún esfuerzo = effortlessly.
    * sin ningún esfuerzo mental = thought-free.
    * tener hambre después del esfuerzo = work up + an appetite.
    * tener sed después del esfuerzo = work up + a thirst.
    * tirar dinero y esfuerzo por la borda = be money and effort down the drain.
    * trabajo y esfuerzo = toil and trouble.
    * unir esfuerzos = join + hands.
    * vehículo propulsado por el esfuerzo físico humano = human-powered vehicle.

    * * *
    por lo menos hizo el esfuerzo de ser amable at least he made an effort o tried to be friendly
    hay que hacer un esfuerzo de imaginación you have to use your imagination
    me costó muchos esfuerzos convencerlo it took a lot of effort to persuade him, I had a lot of trouble persuading him
    conseguía todo lo que quería sin esfuerzo she got everything she wanted quite effortlessly o without any effort
    2 ( Fís) effort
    * * *

     

    Del verbo esforzar: ( conjugate esforzar)

    esfuerzo es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    esforzar    
    esfuerzo
    esforzar ( conjugate esforzar) verbo transitivo ‹voz/vista› to strain
    esforzarse verbo pronominal:

    tienes que esfuerzote más you'll have to work harder;
    esfuerzose por o en hacer algo to strive to do sth
    esfuerzo sustantivo masculino
    effort;
    hizo el esfuerzo de ser amable he made an effort o tried to be friendly
    esforzar vtr (la vista, un músculo) to strain
    esfuerzo sustantivo masculino effort
    hacer un esfuerzo, to make an effort
    ♦ Locuciones: sin esfuerzo, effortlessly

    ' esfuerzo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    conquista
    - considerable
    - cuajar
    - desesperada
    - desesperado
    - difícil
    - economía
    - emplear
    - entregarse
    - facilidad
    - gratificar
    - hacer
    - inversión
    - invertir
    - lucir
    - lucha
    - mérito
    - molestarse
    - molestia
    - mucha
    - mucho
    - obra
    - paliza
    - para
    - penosa
    - penoso
    - premiar
    - premio
    - producto
    - renovar
    - rentable
    - rota
    - roto
    - sprint
    - sudor
    - titánica
    - titánico
    - trabajo
    - tute
    - baldío
    - común
    - conjunto
    - consagrar
    - costar
    - demasiado
    - desplegar
    - empeño
    - estéril
    - hazaña
    - intenso
    English:
    all-out
    - challenging
    - concerted
    - conscious
    - effort
    - effortless
    - endeavor
    - endeavour
    - exert
    - exertion
    - extraordinary
    - hard-won
    - heave
    - incessant
    - last-ditch
    - level
    - obstinate
    - out
    - puff
    - push
    - shatter
    - spurt
    - strain
    - strenuous
    - successful
    - sustain
    - swing
    - trouble
    - try
    - unsuccessful
    - vain
    - waste
    - work
    - worth
    * * *
    [físico, intelectual] effort;
    cualquier movimiento cuesta o [m5] supone un terrible esfuerzo any movement requires a huge effort;
    no hagas ningún esfuerzo, que el médico ha recomendado reposo don't exert yourself, the doctor has recommended rest;
    hacer esfuerzos, hacer un esfuerzo to make an effort, to try hard;
    estoy haciendo esfuerzos por no llorar I'm trying hard not to cry;
    hizo un esfuerzo por agradar he made an effort to be pleasant;
    haz un último esfuerzo, ya verás como ahora lo consigues make one last attempt, you'll do it this time!;
    sin esfuerzo effortlessly
    * * *
    m effort;
    hacer un esfuerzo make an effort;
    sin esfuerzo effortlessly
    * * *
    1) : effort
    2) ánimo, vigor: spirit, vigor
    3)
    sin esfuerzo : effortlessly
    * * *
    esfuerzo n effort

    Spanish-English dictionary > esfuerzo

  • 4 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 5 adaptación

    f.
    1 adaptation, adjustment, fitting, accommodation.
    2 adaptation.
    3 porting.
    * * *
    1 adaptation
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    * * *
    a) ( proceso) adaptation, adjustment
    b) ( cosa adaptada) adaptation
    * * *
    = adaptation, customisation [customization, -USA], profiling, tweaking, tailoring, retrofitting, tweak, accommodation, acclimatisation [acclimatization, -USA], adjustment, adaptability.
    Ex. Which title will collocate the various editions, translations, adaptations, and so on of this document?.
    Ex. The evaluation model therefore is subject to a degree of customisation to adapt it to the project environment.
    Ex. Some excursions into cognitive science have led to the profiling of users' backgrounds, differences and immediate need.
    Ex. The PCC intends that Program records, full or core, represent acceptable bibliographic control such that record ' tweaking' at the local level is minimized.
    Ex. To haul themselves out of their bog, their networks must facilitate tailoring of records to meet local needs.
    Ex. This paper describes the recipients of the award, 3 of which won for new buildings, 1 a major renovation and 2 adaptive retrofittings of library structures.
    Ex. This system simultaneously searches the Web and a large, multidisciplinary, full text database, using a relevance system with some clever tweaks.
    Ex. Whatever structure emerges will be one of accommodation and acceptance by the various stakeholders both in and outside the library.
    Ex. The second section discusses the contributions faculty can make to the successful acclimatization of their handicapped students to college life.
    Ex. Even in situations where there is a published list covering the requirements of the type of library to be indexed, this list is likely to require adjustment in order to make it compatible with local requirements.
    Ex. The duration of the cycle varies markedly from institution to institution, dependent upon the adaptability of the institutional structure to challenge and change.
    ----
    * adaptación a las circunstancias locales = localisation [localization, -USA].
    * adaptación al cine = film adaptation.
    * adaptación cinematográfica = film adaptation.
    * adaptación musical = adaptation, musical adaptation.
    * adaptación para televisión = dramatisation [dramatization].
    * adaptación social = social adjustment.
    * adaptación teatral = dramatisation [dramatization].
    * adaptación tecnológica = adaptive technology.
    * de adaptación = adaptive.
    * * *
    a) ( proceso) adaptation, adjustment
    b) ( cosa adaptada) adaptation
    * * *
    = adaptation, customisation [customization, -USA], profiling, tweaking, tailoring, retrofitting, tweak, accommodation, acclimatisation [acclimatization, -USA], adjustment, adaptability.

    Ex: Which title will collocate the various editions, translations, adaptations, and so on of this document?.

    Ex: The evaluation model therefore is subject to a degree of customisation to adapt it to the project environment.
    Ex: Some excursions into cognitive science have led to the profiling of users' backgrounds, differences and immediate need.
    Ex: The PCC intends that Program records, full or core, represent acceptable bibliographic control such that record ' tweaking' at the local level is minimized.
    Ex: To haul themselves out of their bog, their networks must facilitate tailoring of records to meet local needs.
    Ex: This paper describes the recipients of the award, 3 of which won for new buildings, 1 a major renovation and 2 adaptive retrofittings of library structures.
    Ex: This system simultaneously searches the Web and a large, multidisciplinary, full text database, using a relevance system with some clever tweaks.
    Ex: Whatever structure emerges will be one of accommodation and acceptance by the various stakeholders both in and outside the library.
    Ex: The second section discusses the contributions faculty can make to the successful acclimatization of their handicapped students to college life.
    Ex: Even in situations where there is a published list covering the requirements of the type of library to be indexed, this list is likely to require adjustment in order to make it compatible with local requirements.
    Ex: The duration of the cycle varies markedly from institution to institution, dependent upon the adaptability of the institutional structure to challenge and change.
    * adaptación a las circunstancias locales = localisation [localization, -USA].
    * adaptación al cine = film adaptation.
    * adaptación cinematográfica = film adaptation.
    * adaptación musical = adaptation, musical adaptation.
    * adaptación para televisión = dramatisation [dramatization].
    * adaptación social = social adjustment.
    * adaptación teatral = dramatisation [dramatization].
    * adaptación tecnológica = adaptive technology.
    * de adaptación = adaptive.

    * * *
    1 (proceso) adaptation, adjustment
    admiro tu capacidad de adaptación I admire your ability to adapt o your adaptability
    2 (cosa adaptada) adaptation
    la adaptación cinematográfica the screen o movie o film version, the screen o movie o film adaptation
    es una adaptación del sistema usado por Parker it is an adaptation of the system used by Parker
    * * *

     

    adaptación sustantivo femenino



    adaptación sustantivo femenino adaptation
    ' adaptación' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    libre
    - medio
    English:
    adaptation
    - adjustment
    - arrangement
    - dramatization
    - dramatize
    * * *
    1. [acomodación] adjustment (a to);
    adaptación al medio adaptation to the environment
    2. [modificación] adaptation;
    la película es una buena adaptación del libro the film is a good adaptation of the book
    * * *
    f adaptation
    * * *
    adaptación nf, pl - ciones : adaptation, adjustment

    Spanish-English dictionary > adaptación

  • 6 conocimiento

    m.
    1 knowledge.
    hablar/actuar con conocimiento de causa to know what one is talking about/doing
    poner algo en conocimiento de alguien to bring something to somebody's attention, to inform somebody of something
    tener conocimiento de algo to be aware of something
    ha llegado a mi conocimiento que estás insatisfecho it has come to my attention that you are not happy
    2 consciousness (sentido, conciencia).
    perder/recobrar el conocimiento to lose/regain consciousness
    estaba tumbado en el suelo, sin conocimiento he was lying unconscious on the floor
    3 awareness, consciousness, cognizance.
    * * *
    1 (In 1, also used in plural with the same meaning) (saber) knowledge
    2 (sensatez) good sense
    3 (conciencia) consciousness
    \
    con conocimiento de causa with full knowledge of the facts
    perder el conocimiento to lose consciousness
    poner algo en conocimiento de alguien to make something known to somebody, inform somebody of something
    recobrar el conocimiento to regain consciousness, come round
    tener conocimiento de algo to know about something
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=saber) knowledge

    conocimientos — (=nociones) knowledge sing

    mis pocos conocimientos de filosofía/cocina — my limited knowledge of philosophy/cookery

    2) (=información) knowledge

    • dar conocimiento de algo, dimos conocimiento del robo a la policía — we informed the police about the robbery

    • llegar a conocimiento de algn — to come to sb's attention o notice

    • tener conocimiento de algo, aún no tenemos conocimiento de su detención — we still do not know that he has been arrested

    desea ponerlo en conocimiento público — he wants it brought to the public's attention, he wishes it to be made public

    conocimiento de causa, hacer algo con conocimiento de causa — to be fully aware of what one is doing

    3) (=consciencia) consciousness

    recobrar o recuperar el conocimiento — to regain consciousness

    4) (=sentido común) common sense
    5) (Jur) cognizance frm
    6) (Com)
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( saber) knowledge
    b) conocimientos masculino plural ( nociones) knowledge
    2) (frml) ( información)

    dar conocimiento de algo a alguien — to inform o (frml) apprise somebody of something

    pongo en su conocimiento que... — (Corresp) I am writing to inform you that...

    con conocimiento de causa: obró con conocimiento de causa (frml) he took this step, fully aware of what the consequences would be; hablo con conocimiento de causa — I know what I'm talking about

    3) ( sentido) consciousness

    perder/recobrar el conocimiento — to lose/regain consciousness

    aún es pequeño, no tiene todavía conocimiento — he's not old enough to understand

    * * *
    = cognition, competency, enlightenment, expertise, familiarisation [familiarization, -USA], familiarity, insight, knowledge, learning, acquaintance, understanding, cognisance [cognizance, -USA], connoisseurship, consciousness.
    Ex. The information-processing model of cognition, and developments in artificial intelligence encourage such comparisons = El modelo de la cognición sobre el procesamiento de la información de y los avances de la inteligencia artificial fomentan este tipo de comparaciones.
    Ex. SLIS programmes intended to 'produce' librarians with competency in the use of IT have to be designed.
    Ex. Considered as necessary work in the interest of humanity and general enlightenment, bibliography gains ground as the years pass.
    Ex. Its primary function is to provide a centre for software and hardware expertise for its members.
    Ex. Step 1 Familiarisation: This first step involves the indexer in becoming conversant with the subject content of the document to be indexed.
    Ex. The most effective searchers are those who have both system experience and some familiarity with the subject area in which they are searching.
    Ex. The human indexer works mechanically and rapidly; he should require no insight into the document content.
    Ex. These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex. It is the responsibility of educators to stretch their student's intellects, hone their skills of intuitive judgment and synthesis, and build a love of learning that will sustain them beyond the level of formal education.
    Ex. It is only with accumulating experience and many years of close study and acquaintance with bibliographic works that a really substantial body of knowledge of the potential of bibliographic sources is acquired.
    Ex. We librarians ought to have a clearer understanding of our stock-in-trade (books) and their function of social mechanism.
    Ex. The passive cognisance of growth causes considerable difficulties = El conocimiento pasivo del crecimiento causa dificultades importantes.
    Ex. This book explores the underlying institutional factors that help museum-based connoisseurship and aestheticism and university-based critical theory and revisionist scholarship exist.
    Ex. For example, the latter are unlikely to engage themselves in conservation issues as these now press upon the professional consciousness of librarians.
    ----
    * actualizar los conocimientos = upgrade + Posesivo + skills.
    * adquirir conocimiento = gain + knowledge, glean + knowledge, acquire + knowledge, build up + knowledge.
    * ampliar el conocimiento = expand + Posesivo + knowledge, expand + Posesivo + knowledge, widen + knowledge, broaden + knowledge, deepen + understanding.
    * ampliar las fronteras del conocimiento = push back + the frontiers of knowledge.
    * análisis de áreas del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * análisis de dominios del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * aprendizaje rico en conocimiento = knowledge-rich learning.
    * área de conocimiento = area of study.
    * área del conocimiento = area of knowledge, discipline, subject field, field of activity, knowledge domain, discipline of knowledge.
    * aumentar el conocimiento = expand + Posesivo + knowledge, deepen + awareness.
    * aumento del conocimiento = knowledge building.
    * bannco de conocimiento = knowledge bank.
    * basado en el conocimiento = knowledge-based.
    * basado en las disciplinas del conocimiento = discipline-based.
    * bibliotecario con conocimientos de medicina = informationist.
    * búsqueda del conocimiento = quest for/of knowledge.
    * campo del conocimiento = field of knowledge.
    * centrado en el conocimiento = knowledge-centric.
    * ciencia del conocimiento = cognitive science.
    * compartir el conocimiento = knowledge sharing, pool + knowledge.
    * con conocimiento = authoritatively.
    * con conocimiento básico en el manejo de la información = information literate [information-literate].
    * con conocimiento básico en el uso de la biblioteca = library literate [library-literate].
    * con conocimiento de = appreciative of, conversant with.
    * con conocimiento de causa = knowingly, knowingly.
    * con conocimiento de informática = computer literate [computer-literate].
    * con conocimiento en el uso de Internet = Internet-savvy.
    * con conocimientos en = versed in.
    * con conocimientos sobre el correo electrónico = e-mail literate.
    * con el conocimiento de que = on the understanding that.
    * conjunto de conocimientos = body of knowledge.
    * conocimiento académico = academic knowledge.
    * conocimiento acumulado sobre un tema = lore.
    * conocimiento básico = working familiarity, working knowledge.
    * conocimiento científico = scientific knowledge.
    * conocimiento compartido = knowledge sharing.
    * conocimiento de base = foundation study.
    * conocimiento de cómo sobrevivir en el bosque = woodcraft.
    * conocimiento de embarque = bill of lading.
    * conocimiento de la existencia = awareness.
    * conocimiento de lengua = language skill.
    * conocimiento del objeto = object knowledge.
    * conocimiento de los diferentes soportes = media competency.
    * conocimiento detallado = intimate knowledge.
    * conocimiento de un área temática = area knowledge.
    * conocimiento documentado = recorded knowledge.
    * conocimiento enciclopédico = factual knowledge.
    * conocimiento en tecnología = technological skill.
    * conocimiento específico = expert knowledge.
    * conocimiento experto = expert knowledge, expertise.
    * conocimiento explícito = explicit knowledge.
    * conocimiento factual = declarative knowledge.
    * conocimiento humano = human consciousness.
    * conocimiento humano, el = human record, the.
    * conocimiento indígena = indigenous knowledge.
    * conocimiento lingüístico = language skill.
    * conocimiento mutuo = mutual knowledge.
    * conocimiento pasivo = nodding acquaintance.
    * conocimiento pleno = awareness.
    * conocimiento práctico = working knowledge, procedural knowledge.
    * conocimiento previo = foreknowledge.
    * conocimientos = knowledge base [knowledge-base].
    * conocimientos básicos = literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de búsqueda, recuperación y organización de informació = information literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de documentación = information literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de informática = computer literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos en tecnología = technical literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos sobre el uso de las bibliotecas = library skills.
    * conocimientos de tecnología = techno-savvy, tech-savvy.
    * conocimientos en el manejo de la información = info-savvy.
    * conocimiento sobre una materia = subject knowledge.
    * conocimientos requeridos = job specs.
    * conocimiento tácito = tacit knowledge, tacit knowledge, tacit knowledge.
    * conocimiento técnico = know-how, technical knowledge.
    * conocimiento teórico = declarative knowledge.
    * con poco conocimiento de las nuevas tecnologías = technologically challenged.
    * corpus de conocimiento = corpus of knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * cúmulo de conocimiento = repository of knowledge, knowledge repository.
    * decisión con conocimiento de causa = informed decision.
    * difundir el conocimiento = spread + knowledge.
    * director ejecutivo de la gestión del conocimiento = knowledge executive.
    * dominio del conocimiento = knowledge domain.
    * economía basada en el conocimiento = knowledge driven economy.
    * economía del conocimiento = knowledge economy.
    * Era del Conocimiento, la = Knowledge Age, the.
    * estructuración del conocimiento = knowledge structuring.
    * examinar los conocimientos = test + knowledge.
    * falta de conocimiento = unfamiliarity.
    * filtro del conocimiento = knowledge filter.
    * fomentar el conocimiento = advance + knowledge.
    * fondo común de conocimientos = pool of knowledge, pool of expertise.
    * frontera del conocimiento = frontier of knowledge.
    * fundamentos del conocimiento, los = foundations of knowledge, the.
    * gestión del conocimiento = knowledge management (KM).
    * gestor del conocimiento = knowledge worker, knowledge manager.
    * hacer avanzar el conocimiento = push back + the frontiers of knowledge.
    * hacer gala del conocimiento que uno tiene = air + knowledge.
    * hacer perder el conocimiento = knock + Nombre + out, knock + Nombre + unconscious.
    * hacer uso de un conocimiento = draw on/upon + knowledge.
    * impartir conocimiento = impart + knowledge.
    * inculcar conocimiento = instil + knowledge.
    * ingeniería del conocimiento = knowledge engineering.
    * ingeniero del conocimiento = knowledge engineer.
    * institucion del conocimiento = institution of learning.
    * intercambio de conocimientos = learning exchange, cross-fertilisation [cross-fertilization, -USA], cross-fertilisation of knowledge.
    * jefe de los servicios de gestión del conocimiento = chief knowledge officer (CKO).
    * metaconocimiento = meta-knowledge.
    * navegación por el conocimiento = knowledge navigation.
    * navegador del conocimiento = knowledge navigator.
    * obtener conocimiento = gain + an understanding.
    * ofrecer conocimiento = package + knowledge.
    * perder el conocimiento = lose + Posesivo + senses, pass out, lose + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * pérdida del conocimiento = unconsciousness, fainting, fainting fit, loss of consciousness.
    * personas sin conocimientos técnicos, las = non-technical, the.
    * presentar conocimiento = package + knowledge.
    * producto del conocimiento = knowledge record.
    * profundizar en el conocimiento = deepen + knowledge.
    * propagar el conocimiento = propagate + knowledge.
    * proporcionar conocimientos técnicos = supply + know-how.
    * quedarse sin conocimiento = lose + Posesivo + consciousness, pass out.
    * rama del conocimiento = branch of learning.
    * recobrar el conocimiento = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * recuperar el conocimiento = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * red de conocimiento = knowledge network.
    * servidor del conocimiento = knowledge server.
    * sin conocimiento = unconscious.
    * sin conocimiento de causa = unbeknown to, unbeknownst to.
    * sintetizar el conocimiento = synthesise + knowledge.
    * sistema basado en el conocimiento = knowledge-base system.
    * sistema de gestión del conocimiento = knowledge management system (KMS).
    * sociedad basada en el conocimiento = knowledge based society.
    * sociedad del conocimiento = knowledge society.
    * Sociedad para el Conocimiento Global = Global Knowledge Partnership.
    * suministrar conocimientos técnicos = supply + know-how.
    * tener conocimiento de = be privy to, be aware of.
    * toma de decisiones con conocimiento de causa = informed decision making.
    * tomar decisiones con conocimiento de causa = make + informed decisions.
    * transferencia de conocimiento = transfer of knowledge, knowledge transfer.
    * utilizar los conocimientos de Uno = put + Posesivo + knowledge to work.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( saber) knowledge
    b) conocimientos masculino plural ( nociones) knowledge
    2) (frml) ( información)

    dar conocimiento de algo a alguien — to inform o (frml) apprise somebody of something

    pongo en su conocimiento que... — (Corresp) I am writing to inform you that...

    con conocimiento de causa: obró con conocimiento de causa (frml) he took this step, fully aware of what the consequences would be; hablo con conocimiento de causa — I know what I'm talking about

    3) ( sentido) consciousness

    perder/recobrar el conocimiento — to lose/regain consciousness

    aún es pequeño, no tiene todavía conocimiento — he's not old enough to understand

    * * *
    = cognition, competency, enlightenment, expertise, familiarisation [familiarization, -USA], familiarity, insight, knowledge, learning, acquaintance, understanding, cognisance [cognizance, -USA], connoisseurship, consciousness.

    Ex: The information-processing model of cognition, and developments in artificial intelligence encourage such comparisons = El modelo de la cognición sobre el procesamiento de la información de y los avances de la inteligencia artificial fomentan este tipo de comparaciones.

    Ex: SLIS programmes intended to 'produce' librarians with competency in the use of IT have to be designed.
    Ex: Considered as necessary work in the interest of humanity and general enlightenment, bibliography gains ground as the years pass.
    Ex: Its primary function is to provide a centre for software and hardware expertise for its members.
    Ex: Step 1 Familiarisation: This first step involves the indexer in becoming conversant with the subject content of the document to be indexed.
    Ex: The most effective searchers are those who have both system experience and some familiarity with the subject area in which they are searching.
    Ex: The human indexer works mechanically and rapidly; he should require no insight into the document content.
    Ex: These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex: It is the responsibility of educators to stretch their student's intellects, hone their skills of intuitive judgment and synthesis, and build a love of learning that will sustain them beyond the level of formal education.
    Ex: It is only with accumulating experience and many years of close study and acquaintance with bibliographic works that a really substantial body of knowledge of the potential of bibliographic sources is acquired.
    Ex: We librarians ought to have a clearer understanding of our stock-in-trade (books) and their function of social mechanism.
    Ex: The passive cognisance of growth causes considerable difficulties = El conocimiento pasivo del crecimiento causa dificultades importantes.
    Ex: This book explores the underlying institutional factors that help museum-based connoisseurship and aestheticism and university-based critical theory and revisionist scholarship exist.
    Ex: For example, the latter are unlikely to engage themselves in conservation issues as these now press upon the professional consciousness of librarians.
    * actualizar los conocimientos = upgrade + Posesivo + skills.
    * adquirir conocimiento = gain + knowledge, glean + knowledge, acquire + knowledge, build up + knowledge.
    * ampliar el conocimiento = expand + Posesivo + knowledge, expand + Posesivo + knowledge, widen + knowledge, broaden + knowledge, deepen + understanding.
    * ampliar las fronteras del conocimiento = push back + the frontiers of knowledge.
    * análisis de áreas del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * análisis de dominios del conocimiento = domain analysis.
    * aprendizaje rico en conocimiento = knowledge-rich learning.
    * área de conocimiento = area of study.
    * área del conocimiento = area of knowledge, discipline, subject field, field of activity, knowledge domain, discipline of knowledge.
    * aumentar el conocimiento = expand + Posesivo + knowledge, deepen + awareness.
    * aumento del conocimiento = knowledge building.
    * bannco de conocimiento = knowledge bank.
    * basado en el conocimiento = knowledge-based.
    * basado en las disciplinas del conocimiento = discipline-based.
    * bibliotecario con conocimientos de medicina = informationist.
    * búsqueda del conocimiento = quest for/of knowledge.
    * campo del conocimiento = field of knowledge.
    * centrado en el conocimiento = knowledge-centric.
    * ciencia del conocimiento = cognitive science.
    * compartir el conocimiento = knowledge sharing, pool + knowledge.
    * con conocimiento = authoritatively.
    * con conocimiento básico en el manejo de la información = information literate [information-literate].
    * con conocimiento básico en el uso de la biblioteca = library literate [library-literate].
    * con conocimiento de = appreciative of, conversant with.
    * con conocimiento de causa = knowingly, knowingly.
    * con conocimiento de informática = computer literate [computer-literate].
    * con conocimiento en el uso de Internet = Internet-savvy.
    * con conocimientos en = versed in.
    * con conocimientos sobre el correo electrónico = e-mail literate.
    * con el conocimiento de que = on the understanding that.
    * conjunto de conocimientos = body of knowledge.
    * conocimiento académico = academic knowledge.
    * conocimiento acumulado sobre un tema = lore.
    * conocimiento básico = working familiarity, working knowledge.
    * conocimiento científico = scientific knowledge.
    * conocimiento compartido = knowledge sharing.
    * conocimiento de base = foundation study.
    * conocimiento de cómo sobrevivir en el bosque = woodcraft.
    * conocimiento de embarque = bill of lading.
    * conocimiento de la existencia = awareness.
    * conocimiento de lengua = language skill.
    * conocimiento del objeto = object knowledge.
    * conocimiento de los diferentes soportes = media competency.
    * conocimiento detallado = intimate knowledge.
    * conocimiento de un área temática = area knowledge.
    * conocimiento documentado = recorded knowledge.
    * conocimiento enciclopédico = factual knowledge.
    * conocimiento en tecnología = technological skill.
    * conocimiento específico = expert knowledge.
    * conocimiento experto = expert knowledge, expertise.
    * conocimiento explícito = explicit knowledge.
    * conocimiento factual = declarative knowledge.
    * conocimiento humano = human consciousness.
    * conocimiento humano, el = human record, the.
    * conocimiento indígena = indigenous knowledge.
    * conocimiento lingüístico = language skill.
    * conocimiento mutuo = mutual knowledge.
    * conocimiento pasivo = nodding acquaintance.
    * conocimiento pleno = awareness.
    * conocimiento práctico = working knowledge, procedural knowledge.
    * conocimiento previo = foreknowledge.
    * conocimientos = knowledge base [knowledge-base].
    * conocimientos básicos = literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de búsqueda, recuperación y organización de informació = information literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de documentación = information literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos de informática = computer literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos en tecnología = technical literacy.
    * conocimientos básicos sobre el uso de las bibliotecas = library skills.
    * conocimientos de tecnología = techno-savvy, tech-savvy.
    * conocimientos en el manejo de la información = info-savvy.
    * conocimiento sobre una materia = subject knowledge.
    * conocimientos requeridos = job specs.
    * conocimiento tácito = tacit knowledge, tacit knowledge, tacit knowledge.
    * conocimiento técnico = know-how, technical knowledge.
    * conocimiento teórico = declarative knowledge.
    * con poco conocimiento de las nuevas tecnologías = technologically challenged.
    * corpus de conocimiento = corpus of knowledge.
    * crear un fondo común de conocimientos = pool + knowledge.
    * cúmulo de conocimiento = repository of knowledge, knowledge repository.
    * decisión con conocimiento de causa = informed decision.
    * difundir el conocimiento = spread + knowledge.
    * director ejecutivo de la gestión del conocimiento = knowledge executive.
    * dominio del conocimiento = knowledge domain.
    * economía basada en el conocimiento = knowledge driven economy.
    * economía del conocimiento = knowledge economy.
    * Era del Conocimiento, la = Knowledge Age, the.
    * estructuración del conocimiento = knowledge structuring.
    * examinar los conocimientos = test + knowledge.
    * falta de conocimiento = unfamiliarity.
    * filtro del conocimiento = knowledge filter.
    * fomentar el conocimiento = advance + knowledge.
    * fondo común de conocimientos = pool of knowledge, pool of expertise.
    * frontera del conocimiento = frontier of knowledge.
    * fundamentos del conocimiento, los = foundations of knowledge, the.
    * gestión del conocimiento = knowledge management (KM).
    * gestor del conocimiento = knowledge worker, knowledge manager.
    * hacer avanzar el conocimiento = push back + the frontiers of knowledge.
    * hacer gala del conocimiento que uno tiene = air + knowledge.
    * hacer perder el conocimiento = knock + Nombre + out, knock + Nombre + unconscious.
    * hacer uso de un conocimiento = draw on/upon + knowledge.
    * impartir conocimiento = impart + knowledge.
    * inculcar conocimiento = instil + knowledge.
    * ingeniería del conocimiento = knowledge engineering.
    * ingeniero del conocimiento = knowledge engineer.
    * institucion del conocimiento = institution of learning.
    * intercambio de conocimientos = learning exchange, cross-fertilisation [cross-fertilization, -USA], cross-fertilisation of knowledge.
    * jefe de los servicios de gestión del conocimiento = chief knowledge officer (CKO).
    * metaconocimiento = meta-knowledge.
    * navegación por el conocimiento = knowledge navigation.
    * navegador del conocimiento = knowledge navigator.
    * obtener conocimiento = gain + an understanding.
    * ofrecer conocimiento = package + knowledge.
    * perder el conocimiento = lose + Posesivo + senses, pass out, lose + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * pérdida del conocimiento = unconsciousness, fainting, fainting fit, loss of consciousness.
    * personas sin conocimientos técnicos, las = non-technical, the.
    * presentar conocimiento = package + knowledge.
    * producto del conocimiento = knowledge record.
    * profundizar en el conocimiento = deepen + knowledge.
    * propagar el conocimiento = propagate + knowledge.
    * proporcionar conocimientos técnicos = supply + know-how.
    * quedarse sin conocimiento = lose + Posesivo + consciousness, pass out.
    * rama del conocimiento = branch of learning.
    * recobrar el conocimiento = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * recuperar el conocimiento = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * red de conocimiento = knowledge network.
    * servidor del conocimiento = knowledge server.
    * sin conocimiento = unconscious.
    * sin conocimiento de causa = unbeknown to, unbeknownst to.
    * sintetizar el conocimiento = synthesise + knowledge.
    * sistema basado en el conocimiento = knowledge-base system.
    * sistema de gestión del conocimiento = knowledge management system (KMS).
    * sociedad basada en el conocimiento = knowledge based society.
    * sociedad del conocimiento = knowledge society.
    * Sociedad para el Conocimiento Global = Global Knowledge Partnership.
    * suministrar conocimientos técnicos = supply + know-how.
    * tener conocimiento de = be privy to, be aware of.
    * toma de decisiones con conocimiento de causa = informed decision making.
    * tomar decisiones con conocimiento de causa = make + informed decisions.
    * transferencia de conocimiento = transfer of knowledge, knowledge transfer.
    * utilizar los conocimientos de Uno = put + Posesivo + knowledge to work.

    * * *
    A
    1 (saber) knowledge
    tiene algunos conocimientos de inglés he has some knowledge of English, he knows some English
    B ( frml)
    (información): dio conocimiento del suceso a las autoridades he informed o ( frml) apprised the authorities of the incident
    puso el hecho en conocimiento de la policía she informed the police of the incident, she reported the incident to the police
    pongo en su conocimiento que … ( Corresp) I am writing to inform you that …
    al tener conocimiento del suceso upon learning of the incident ( frml)
    a esas horas no se tenía todavía conocimiento de la noticia at that time we/they still had not heard the news
    ciertas personas tienen conocimiento de sus actividades certain people are aware of her activities
    llegar a conocimiento de algn to come to sb's attention o notice ( frml)
    con conocimiento de causa: obró con conocimiento de causa ( frml); he took this step, fully aware of what the consequences would be
    te lo digo con conocimiento de causa I know what I'm talking about
    Compuesto:
    bill of lading, waybill
    C (sentido) consciousness
    perder el conocimiento to lose consciousness
    cuando recobró el conocimiento when he regained consciousness, when he came to o round
    estar sin conocimiento to be unconscious
    D
    (entendimiento): aún es pequeño, no tiene todavía conocimiento he's not old enough to understand
    * * *

     

    conocimiento sustantivo masculino


    poner algo en conocimiento de algn to inform sb of sth;
    tener conocimiento de algo to be aware of sth

    ◊ perder/recobrar el conocimiento to lose/regain consciousness;

    estar sin conocimiento to be unconscious
    conocimiento sustantivo masculino
    1 knowledge
    2 (conciencia) consciousness
    3 conocimientos, knowledge
    ♦ Locuciones: perder/recobrar el conocimiento, to lose/regain consciousness
    con conocimiento de causa, with full knowledge of the facts
    ' conocimiento' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    braga
    - ciencia
    - conciencia
    - desfallecer
    - desvanecerse
    - dominio
    - error
    - orientación
    - parcela
    - revelar
    - sentida
    - sentido
    - experiencia
    - perder
    - pérdida
    - reanimar
    - recobrar
    - saber
    English:
    acquaintance
    - air
    - black out
    - blackout
    - cognizance
    - come to
    - comprehensive
    - consciousness
    - familiarity
    - grounding
    - improve
    - knock out
    - knowledge
    - notice
    - privy
    - recover
    - self-awareness
    - sketchy
    - superficial
    - thorough
    - unconsciousness
    - black
    - knock
    - know
    - pass
    * * *
    1. [saber] knowledge;
    hablar/actuar con conocimiento de causa to know what one is talking about/doing;
    puso el robo en conocimiento de la policía she informed the police of the burglary;
    ponemos en su conocimiento que se ha detectado un error en el programa this is to inform you that an error has been detected in the program;
    no teníamos conocimiento de su dimisión we were not aware that he had resigned;
    al tener conocimiento del accidente, acudió inmediatamente al hospital when she found out about the accident she immediately went to the hospital;
    ha llegado a mi conocimiento que estás insatisfecho it has come to my attention that you are not happy
    2.
    conocimientos [nociones] knowledge;
    tengo algunos conocimientos de informática I have some knowledge of computers, I know a bit about computers;
    nuestros conocimientos acerca de la enfermedad son muy limitados our knowledge of the disease is very limited, we know very little about the disease
    3. [sentido, conciencia] consciousness;
    perder el conocimiento to lose consciousness;
    recobrar el conocimiento to regain consciousness;
    estaba tumbado en el suelo, sin conocimiento he was lying unconscious on the floor
    4. [juicio] (common) sense;
    5. Com conocimiento de embarque bill of lading
    * * *
    m
    1 knowledge;
    con conocimiento de causa hacer algo fully aware of the consequences;
    para su conocimiento for your information;
    conocimientos pl ( nociones) knowledge sg
    2 MED consciousness;
    perder el conocimiento lose consciousness;
    sin conocimiento unconscious;
    recobrar el conocimiento regain consciousness
    * * *
    1) : knowledge
    2) sentido: consciousness
    * * *
    1. (en general) knowledge
    2. (sentido) consciousness

    Spanish-English dictionary > conocimiento

  • 7 descripción

    f.
    1 description, definition, outline, describing.
    2 word picture.
    * * *
    1 description
    2 (acción de trazar) tracing, describing, description
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    * * *
    femenino description
    * * *
    = description, disclosure, identification, picture, specification, specifications, profiling, depiction, recounting, portrayal.
    Ex. The indexing process creates a description of a document or information, usually in some recognized and accepted style of format.
    Ex. The patent abstract is a concise statement of the technical disclosure of the patent and must emphasize that which is new in the context of the invention.
    Ex. The second step towards an index involves the identification of the concepts within a document which are worthy of indexing.
    Ex. No pretence is made of their being either a balanced or complete picture of the article.
    Ex. The Working Group was charged with the specification of the procedures and studies needed to undertake the tasks.
    Ex. The specifications, however, are confined to the overall structure and major functional components of the entry.
    Ex. Some excursions into cognitive science have led to the profiling of users' backgrounds, differences and immediate need.
    Ex. Miss Laski suggests that the depiction of life found in many novels is naive, over-simplified and, as a constant diet, can do more harm than good.
    Ex. This is a recounting of the technologies most likely to facilitate the sharing of resources among libraries.
    Ex. Pictorial sources are created by the portrayal of historical events or subjects using, inter alia, a paint brush, drawing-pen, or pencil, graphic techniques or the camera.
    ----
    * área de descripción = area of description.
    * área de descripción física = physical description area.
    * Centro Internacional para la Descripción Bibliográfica del UNISIST = UNIBID.
    * descripción analítica = analytical description.
    * descripción bibliográfica = bibliographic description.
    * descripción bibliográfica de primer nivel = first-level bibliographic description.
    * Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional (ISBD) = ISBD (International Standard Bibliographic Description).
    * Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional - material antiguo (ISBD = ISBD(A) (International Standard Bibliographic Description - Antiquarian).
    * descripción catalográfica = cataloguing description.
    * Descripción de Archivos Codificada (EAD) = Encoded Archival Description (EAD).
    * descripción de documentos de archivo = archival description.
    * descripción de las funciones = job description, job profile.
    * descripción del contenido = subject statement.
    * descripción del documento = document description.
    * descripción del puesto de trabajo = job description, position description, job profile.
    * descripción del solicitante = personnel description.
    * descripción de subcampo = subfield description.
    * descripción documental = document description.
    * descripción física = physical description, physical details.
    * descripción global = outline.
    * hacer una descripción = give + description.
    * ISBD(S) (Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional para Publicacio = ISBD(S) (International Standard Bibliographic Description - Serials).
    * Manual de Descripción de Archivos = Manual of Archival Description (MAD).
    * niveles de detalle en la descripción = levels of detail in the description.
    * Norma General Internacional para la Descripción de Archivos (ISAD-G) = General International Standard Archival Description (ISAD(G)).
    * Norma Internacional para la Descripción de Archivos (ISAD) = International Standard Archival Description (ISAD).
    * * *
    femenino description
    * * *
    = description, disclosure, identification, picture, specification, specifications, profiling, depiction, recounting, portrayal.

    Ex: The indexing process creates a description of a document or information, usually in some recognized and accepted style of format.

    Ex: The patent abstract is a concise statement of the technical disclosure of the patent and must emphasize that which is new in the context of the invention.
    Ex: The second step towards an index involves the identification of the concepts within a document which are worthy of indexing.
    Ex: No pretence is made of their being either a balanced or complete picture of the article.
    Ex: The Working Group was charged with the specification of the procedures and studies needed to undertake the tasks.
    Ex: The specifications, however, are confined to the overall structure and major functional components of the entry.
    Ex: Some excursions into cognitive science have led to the profiling of users' backgrounds, differences and immediate need.
    Ex: Miss Laski suggests that the depiction of life found in many novels is naive, over-simplified and, as a constant diet, can do more harm than good.
    Ex: This is a recounting of the technologies most likely to facilitate the sharing of resources among libraries.
    Ex: Pictorial sources are created by the portrayal of historical events or subjects using, inter alia, a paint brush, drawing-pen, or pencil, graphic techniques or the camera.
    * área de descripción = area of description.
    * área de descripción física = physical description area.
    * Centro Internacional para la Descripción Bibliográfica del UNISIST = UNIBID.
    * descripción analítica = analytical description.
    * descripción bibliográfica = bibliographic description.
    * descripción bibliográfica de primer nivel = first-level bibliographic description.
    * Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional (ISBD) = ISBD (International Standard Bibliographic Description).
    * Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional - material antiguo (ISBD = ISBD(A) (International Standard Bibliographic Description - Antiquarian).
    * descripción catalográfica = cataloguing description.
    * Descripción de Archivos Codificada (EAD) = Encoded Archival Description (EAD).
    * descripción de documentos de archivo = archival description.
    * descripción de las funciones = job description, job profile.
    * descripción del contenido = subject statement.
    * descripción del documento = document description.
    * descripción del puesto de trabajo = job description, position description, job profile.
    * descripción del solicitante = personnel description.
    * descripción de subcampo = subfield description.
    * descripción documental = document description.
    * descripción física = physical description, physical details.
    * descripción global = outline.
    * hacer una descripción = give + description.
    * ISBD(S) (Descripción Bibliográfica Normalizada Internacional para Publicacio = ISBD(S) (International Standard Bibliographic Description - Serials).
    * Manual de Descripción de Archivos = Manual of Archival Description (MAD).
    * niveles de detalle en la descripción = levels of detail in the description.
    * Norma General Internacional para la Descripción de Archivos (ISAD-G) = General International Standard Archival Description (ISAD(G)).
    * Norma Internacional para la Descripción de Archivos (ISAD) = International Standard Archival Description (ISAD).

    * * *
    description
    hizo una fiel descripción de los hechos she gave an accurate description o account of events
    * * *

     

    descripción sustantivo femenino
    description
    descripción sustantivo femenino description
    ' descripción' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    caracterización
    - corresponderse
    - retratar
    - retrato
    - seña
    - somera
    - somero
    - viva
    - vivo
    - calificación
    - corresponder
    - detallado
    - encajar
    - exacto
    - impresionista
    - reseña
    - responder
    - sensual
    - sensualidad
    English:
    colourful
    - delineate
    - description
    - exact
    - fit
    - full
    - job description
    - loose
    - match
    - sketch
    - sketchy
    - understatement
    - vivid
    - with
    - answer
    - depiction
    - job
    - portrayal
    * * *
    description;
    una descripción de los hechos an account of what happened
    * * *
    f description
    * * *
    descripción nf, pl - ciones : description
    * * *
    descripción n description

    Spanish-English dictionary > descripción

  • 8 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

  • 9 Virtual Machine

       wo programs can be thought of as strongly equivalent or as different realizations of the same algorithm or the same cognitive process if they can be represented by the same program in some theoretically specified virtual machine. A simple way of stating this is to say that we individuate cognitive processes in terms of their expression in the canonical language of this virtual machine. The formal structure of the virtual machine-or what I call its functional architecture-thus represents the theoretical definition of, for example, the right level of specificity (or level of aggregation) at which to view mental processes, the sort of functional resources the brain makes available-what operations are primitive, how memory is organized and accessed, what sequences are allowed, what limitations exist on the passing of arguments and on the capacities of various buffers, and so on. (Pylyshyn, 1984, p. 92)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Virtual Machine

  • 10 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

  • 11 Philosophy

       And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)
       Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)
       As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)
       It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)
       Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)
       I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)
       What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.
       This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).
       The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....
       Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)
       8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science
       In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)
       Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....
       Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)
       In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy

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