code+form

the report of the Cadbury Committee (conducted in December 1992) on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance. It was established to consider the following issues in relation to financial reporting and accountability, and to make recommendations on good practice: the responsibilities of executive and nonexecutive directors for reviewing and reporting on performance to shareholders and other financially interested parties; and the frequency, clarity, and form in which information should be provided; the case for audit committees of the board, including their composition and role; the principal responsibilities of the auditors and the extent and value of the audit; the links between shareholders, boards, and auditors; and any other relevant matters. The report established a Code of Best Practice, and has been influential in the United Kingdom and overseas.

See also Corporate Governance Combined Code

the approach of an organization to managing the impact it has on society. Social responsibility involves behaving within certain socially acceptable limits. These limits may not always take the form of written laws or regulations but they amount to an accepted organization-wide moral or ethical code. Organizations that transgress this code are viewed as irresponsible. In order to determine levels of social responsibility, organizations may choose to undertake a social audit or more specifically an environmental audit. Social responsibility, along with business ethics, has grown as a strategic issue as empowerment and the flat organization have pushed decision making down to a wider range of employees at the same time as green or caring consumers are becoming a more powerful market segment.

SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology, Recording, Telecommunications

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Black graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, in 1921 and joined the Western Electric Company laboratories (later the Bell Telephone Laboratories) in New York City. There he worked on a variety of electronic-communication problems. His major contribution was the discovery in 1927 that the application of negative feedback to an amplifier, whereby a fraction of the output signal is fed back to the input in the opposite phase, not only increases the stability of the amplifier but also has the effect of reducing the magnitude of any distortion introduced by it. This discovery has found wide application in the design of audio hi-fi amplifiers and various control systems, and has also given valuable insight into the way in which many animal control functions operate.

During the Second World War he developed a form of pulse code modulation (PCM) to provide a practicable, secure telephony system for the US Army Signal Corps. From 1963–6, after his retirement from the Bell Labs, he was Principal Research Scientist with General Precision Inc., Little Falls, New Jersey, following which he became an independent consultant in communications. At the time of his death he held over 300 patents.

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See also: Bode, Hendrik Wade; Nyquist, Harry

SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications

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Chappe began his studies at the Collège de Joyeuse, Rouen, and completed them at La Flèche. He was educated for the church with the intention of becoming an Abbé Commendataire, but this title did not in fact require him to perform any religious duties. He became interested in natural science and amongst other activities he carried out experiments with electrically charged soap bubbles.

When the bénéfice was suppressed in 1781 he returned home and began to devise a system of telegraphic communication. With the help of his three brothers, particularly Abraham, and using an old idea, in 1790 he made a visual telegraph with suspended pendulums to relay coded messages over a distance of half a kilometre. Despite public suspicion and opposition, he presented the idea to the Assemblée Nationale on 22 May 1792. No doubt due to the influence of his brother, Ignace, a member of the Assemblée Nationale, the idea was favourably received, and on 1 April 1793 it was referred to the National Convention as being of military importance. As a result, Chappe was given the title of Telegraphy Engineer and commissioned to construct a semaphore (Gk. bearing a sign) link between Paris and Lille, a distance of some 240 km (150 miles), using twenty-two towers. Each station contained two telescopes for observing the adjacent towers, and each semaphore consisted of a central beam supporting two arms, whose positions gave nearly two hundred possible arrangements. Hence, by using a code book as a form of lookup table, Chappe was able to devise a code of over 8,000 words. The success of the system for communication during subsequent military conflicts resulted in him being commissioned to extend it with further links, a work that was continued by his brothers after his suicide during a period of illness and depression. Providing as it did an effective message speed of several thousand kilometres per hour, the system remained in use until the mid-nineteenth century, by which time the electric telegraph had become well established.

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See also: Morse, Samuel Finley Breeze

SUBJECT AREA: Broadcasting, Electronics and information technology, Telecommunications

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Popov, the son of a village priest, received his early education in a seminary, but in 1877 he entered the University of St Petersburg to study mathematics. He graduated with distinction in 1883 and joined the faculty to teach mathematics and physics. Then, increasingly interested in electrical engineering, he became an instructor at the Russian Navy Torpedo School at Krondstadt, near St Petersburg, where he later became a professor. On 7 May 1895 he is said to have transmitted and received Morse code radio signals over a distance of 40 m (130 ft) in a demonstration given at St Petersburg University to the Russian Chemical Society, but in a paper published in January 1896 in the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, he in fact described the use of a coherer for recording atmospheric disturbances such as lightning, together with the design of a modified coherer intended for reception at a distance of 5 km (3 miles). Subsequently, on 26 November 1897, after Marconi's own radio-transmission experiments had been publicized, he wrote a letter claiming priority for his discovery to the English-language journal Electrician, in the form of a translated précis of his original paper, but neither the original Russian paper nor the English précis made specific claims of either a receiver or a transmitter as such. However, by 1898 he had certainly developed some form of ship-to-shore radio for the Russian Navy. In 1945, long after the Russian revolution, the communist regime supported his claim to be the inventor of radio, but this is a matter for much debate and the priority of Marconi's claim is generally acknowledged outside the USSR.

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   1) A Unitary Search Process for All the Phenomena of Memory

   To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)

   2) Semantic Memory Is a Mental Thesaurus

   [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)

   3) The Development of Mnemonic Codes

   The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)

   4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology

   If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)

   5) The Constituent Elements of Memory Theory

   We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)

   6) The Problem with the Memory Metaphor

   The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)

   7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging

   The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)

   8) The Structure and Function of a Schema in Memory

   A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)

   9) Competence and Performance in Theories of Memory

   Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....

   Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)

    10) Metaphors of Memory

   When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....

   However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)

    11) Comparison of Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

   Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)

    12) Semantic Memory and Episodic Memory

   Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)

    13) The Relation of Memory to Thinking

   The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

 

распределительный щиток
щиток
-
[ ГОСТ Р 51778-2001]

Классификация

• по назначению
  
  • для производственных и общественных зданий
  • для жилых зданий
• исполнению, относящемуся к виду установки:
  
  • навесное;
  • встраиваемое в нишу;
• наличию отключающего аппарата на вводе:
  
  • с аппаратом:
  • без аппарата;
• наличию учета электроэнергии:
  
  • со счетчиком;
  • без счетчика;
• по наличию слаботочного отсека
  
  • с отсеком
  • без отсека
• количеству защитных аппаратов групповых цепей;
• виду защитных аппаратов групповых цепей
  
  • автоматические выключатели;
  • предохранители;
• наличию устройств защитного отключения:
  
  • с УЗО;
  • без УЗО;
• способу защиты человека от поражения электрическим током:
  
  • классы I и II по ГОСТ Р МЭК 536.
• по числу фаз ввода в щиток
  
  • однофазный при Рр ≤ 11 кВт;
    
  • трехфазный при Рр ≥ 11 кВт или при наличии трехфазных токоприемников;
    
• по наличию аппарата для защиты и отключения питающей цепи (стояка):
  
  • с аппаратом (или предусмотренным местом для последующей его установки потребителем);
  • без аппарата

Примечание. Рр - расчетная мощность на вводе квартиры.
[ ГОСТ Р 51778-2001] и [ ГОСТ Р 51628-2000]

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Распределительные щитки (далее — щитки), применяемые в осветительных и силовых установках производственных, общественных, административных и других подобных зданий для приема и распределения электрической энергии при напряжении 380/220 и 660/380 В трехфазного переменного тока частотой 50 — 60 Гц, нечастого включения и отключения линий групповых цепей, а также для их защиты при перегрузках и коротких замыканиях.

Щитки могут устанавливаться в местах, доступных при эксплуатации неквалифицированному персоналу для выполнения коммутационных операций

Щитки, присоединяемые к трехфазным сетям с типами систем заземления TN-S, TN-C, TN-C-S, ТТ...

В щитках без отключающего аппарата на вводе должны быть зажимы для присоединения проводников питающей цепи
Дверцы щитков должны запираться на ключ
В щитках без дверец...

В щитках со счетчиками для исключения несанкционированного доступа к цепям учета электроэнергии (от входных зажимов вводного аппарата до ввода в счетчик) должны предусматриваться конструктивные элементы с возможностью их опломбирования

На оперативной панели щитка должна выполняться маркировка защитных аппаратов групповых цепей порядковыми номерами

В качестве аппаратов защиты групповых линий используются модульные автоматические выключатели с шириной модуля 18 мм.
На вводе и групповых линиях щитка могут быть установлены устройства защитного отключения с отключающим дифференциальным током на вводе - 30; 100; 300 мА, на групповых линиях - 10; 30 мА.

[ ГОСТ Р 51778-2001]

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A panelboard as defined by the National Electrical Code is a single panel or a group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single panel; including buses, automatic overcurrent devices, and equipped with or without switches for the control of light, heat, or power circuits, designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against a wall or partition and accessible only from the front.
Panelboards provide a compact and convenient method of grouping circuit switching and protective devices at some common point.
Panelboards may be of either the flush or the surface type (Fig. 4.125).
The flush type is used with concealed-wiring installations and has the advantage of not taking up space in the room by extending beyond the surface of the wall. Surface type boxes are used for installations employing exposed wiring.
The boxes are generally constructed of sheet steel, which must be not less than 0.053 in. (1.35 mm) in thickness.
The steel must be galvanized or be covered with some other protective coating to prevent corrosion.
Gutters are provided around the panelboards in cabinets to allow sufficient space for wiring (Figs. 4.125 and 4.126).

FIGURE 4.125 Panel boxes.

The Code requires that all cabinets which contain connections to more than eight conductors be provided with back or side wiring spaces. These wiring spaces must be separated from the panelboard or other devices in the cabinet by partitions so that they will be separate closed compartments, unless all wires are led from the cabinet at points directly opposite their terminal connections to the panelboard.
[American electricians’ handbook]

Тематики

• электроснабжение в целом

Синонимы

• щиток

EN

• panel boxe
• panelboard

. вследствие

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The hypothesis assumes that the genetic code was universal in (or as a) consequence of its being established in the ancestral stock.

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The internal energy increases as a result of the reaction.

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In this zone, mixing occurs as the result of convection.

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In response to the increase of pressure the emergency system went into action.

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The changes in band intensity associated with changes in pH...

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A hydrogen atom is first formed by collision.

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The work is done by virtue of the volume change.

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The first term is the energy contribution due to the translational motion of...

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The possible carbonium ions that can form the addition of...

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With the single-heterostructure laser some of the light is still lost owing to its penetration across...

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The external springs are less likely to deteriorate through heating.

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Contamination of condensate may occur leakage of...

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The pulse shapes were derived scanning different types of particles.

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This work has resulted in two waveguides.

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Bentonite shrinks upon drying.

* * *

 As a result of the present evaluation of existing two-phase flow correlations, the following conclusions can be stated.

 In consequence, considerable attention has been paid to the operator interface with the intention of making the transition to digital control as painless as possible.

 Wastage, if any, in these regions would be masked because of the signal problems.

 Perturbations should develop in the toroidal fields from a fault condition.