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101 britannico
[bri'tanniko] britannico -a, -ci, -che1. agg2. sm/fBritish person, Britoni britannici smpl — the British
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102 Vest-maðr
m. a man from the West, κατ. ἐξ. one from the British Isles, esp. the Irish, Landn. 36, whence Vestmanna-eyjar, the Isles of the Westmen, i. e. of the Irish who were slain there, see Landn.; Hildir ok Hallgeirr vóru Vestmenn, Landn. 344. -
103 Great Britain
Great 'Brit·ain nGroßbritannien nt¿ Kultur?Great Britain - Großbritannien besteht aus dem Königreich England, dem Königreich Schottland und dem Fürstentum Wales. (König Edward I. von England annektierte 1282 Wales und gab es 1301 seinem eigenen Sohn als Prince of Wales. König James VI. von Schottland erbte 1603 als James I. die englische Krone und 1707 wurden die Parlamente der beiden Königreiche vereint.) Zusammen mit Nordirland bilden diese Länder das United Kingdom - Vereinigtes Königreich. Der geografische Begriff British Isles - Britische Inseln bezieht sich auf die Hauptinsel Großbritannien, einschließlich Irlands, die Isle of Man, die Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland, die Scilly Isles und die Channel Islands - Kanalinseln. -
104 island
1.ISLAND [IN, ON] Существительное island 'остров' употребляется с предлогами in и on; словосочетания in the island и on the island синонимичны (соответствуют русскому 'на острове'). In the island употребляется, когда речь идет о крупных островах (обычно группах островов): in the Canary Islands, in the Philippine Islands. On the island употребляется главным образом с названиями небольших, малонаселенных или необитаемых островов: on the Christmas Island, а также в тех случаях, когда существительное island употребляется без географического названия: on an isolated island, on a small coral island. 2. ISLAND, ISLE Английские island и isle (вариант существительного island) дифференцированы в употреблении в современном языке. Island является наиболее широко распространенным словом и употребляется как в сочетании с именем собственным, обозначающим название острова, так и в случаях, когда оно отсутствует (в географических названиях island, как правило, стоит после имени собственного, обозначающего название острова). Например: the Channel Island, the Andaman Islands, the West India Islands, а также small island, picturesque island и т. д. Сфера употребления существительного isle ограничена рядом исторически сложившихся географических названий. Слово isle может стоять как до, так и после имени собственного, обозначающего название острова. Например: the British Isles, the Isle of Wight, the Stilly Isles, the Isle of Thanet и т. д. Isle употребляется также в языке поэзии.Difficulties of the English language (lexical reference) English-Russian dictionary > island
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105 isle
ISLAND, ISLEАнглийские island и isle (вариант существительного island) дифференцированы в употреблении в современном языке. Island является наиболее широко распространенным словом и употребляется как в сочетании с именем собственным, обозначающим название острова, так и в случаях, когда оно отсутствует (в географических названиях island, как правило, стоит после имени собственного, обозначающего название острова). Например: the Channel Island, the Andaman Islands, the West India Islands, а также small island, picturesque island и т. д. Сфера употребления существительного isle ограничена рядом исторически сложившихся географических названий. Слово isle может стоять как до, так и после имени собственного, обозначающего название острова. Например: the British Isles, the Isle of Wight, the Stilly Isles, the Isle of Thanet и т. д. Isle употребляется также в языке поэзии.Difficulties of the English language (lexical reference) English-Russian dictionary > isle
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106 británica
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107 oltremanica
◆ avv. across the Channel: andare oltremanica, to go across the (English) Channel (o to cross the English Channel).* * *[oltre'manika] 1.sostantivo maschile invariabile2.avverbio across, beyond the (English) Channel* * *oltremanica/oltre'manika/I m.inv.d'oltremanica BritishII avverbioacross, beyond the (English) Channel. -
108 Spooner, Charles Easton
[br]b. 1818 Maentwrog, Merioneth (now Gwynedd), Walesd. 18 November 1889 Portmadoc (now Porthmadog), Wales[br]English engineer, pioneer of narrow-gauge steam railways.[br]At the age of 16 Charles Spooner helped his father, James, to build the Festiniog Railway, a horse-and-gravity tramroad; they maintained an even gradient and kept costs down by following a sinuous course along Welsh mountainsides and using a very narrow gauge. This was probably originally 2 ft 1 in. (63.5 cm) from rail centre to rail centre; with the introduction of heavier, and therefore wider, rails the gauge between them was reduced and was eventually standardized at 1 ft 11 1/2 in (60 cm). After James Spooner's death in 1856 Charles Spooner became Manager and Engineer of the Festiniog Railway and sought to introduce steam locomotives. Widening the gauge was impracticable, but there was no precedent for operating a public railway of such narrow gauge by steam. Much of the design work for locomotives for the Festiniog Railway was the responsibility of C.M.Holland, and many possible types were considered: eventually, in 1863, two very small 0–4–0 tank locomotives, with tenders for coal, were built by George England.These locomotives were successful, after initial problems had been overcome, and a passenger train service was introduced in 1865 with equal success. The potential for economical operation offered by such a railway attracted widespread attention, the more so because it had been effectively illegal to build new passenger railways in Britain to other than standard gauge since the Gauge of Railways Act of 1846.Spooner progressively improved the track, alignment, signalling and rolling stock of the Festiniog Railway and developed it from a tramroad to a miniaturized main line. Increasing traffic led to the introduction in 1869 of the 0–4–4–0 double-Fairlie locomotive Little Wonder, built to the patent of Robert Fairlie. This proved more powerful than two 0–4–0s and impressive demonstrations were given to engineers from many parts of the world, leading to the widespread adoption of narrow-gauge railways. Spooner himself favoured a gauge of 2 ft 6 in. (76 cm) or 2 ft 9 in. (84 cm). Comparison of the economy of narrow gauges with the inconvenience of a break of gauge at junctions with wider gauges did, however, become a continuing controversy, which limited the adoption of narrow gauges in Britain.Bogie coaches had long been used in North America but were introduced to Britain by Spooner in 1872, when he had two such coaches built for the Festiniog Railway. Both of these and one of its original locomotives, though much rebuilt, remain in service.Spooner, despite some serious illnesses, remained Manager of the Festiniog Railway until his death.[br]Bibliography1869, jointly with G.A.Huddart, British patent no. 1,487 (improved fishplates). 1869, British patent no. 2,896 (rail-bending machinery).1871, Narrow Gauge Railways, E. \& F.N.Spon (includes his description of the Festiniog Railway, reports of locomotive trials and his proposals for narrow-gauge railways).Further ReadingJ.I.C.Boyd, 1975, The Festiniog Railway, Blandford: Oakwood Press; C.E.Lee, 1945, Narrow-Gauge Railways in North Wales, The Railway Publishing Co. (both give good descriptions of Spooner and the Festiniog Railway).C.Hamilton Ellis, 1965, Railway Carriages in the British Isles, London: George Allen \& Unwin, pp. 181–3. Pihl, Carl Abraham.PJGRBiographical history of technology > Spooner, Charles Easton
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109 britisk
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110 islas británicas
Islas Británicas sustantivo femenino plural British Isles (pl) ' Islas Británicas' also found in these entries: Spanish: británica - británico English: British -
111 vestan
adv.1) from the west (ríðu síðan hina sömu leið vestr, sem þeir hófðu v. riðit); v. um haf, ‘from west over the sea’, from the British Islands;2) on the western side of, with gen. (v. bœjar); fyrir v., west of, with acc. (fyrir v. vötnin).* * *adv. from the west; vestr eða vestan, Ld. 126; vestan ór Fjörðum, Nj. 14, passim: the phrase, vestan um haf, ‘from west over the sea,’ i. e. from the Western Islands, a special phrase for the British Isles across the North Sea, Fms. i. 26: or simply vestan, at hann var vestan kominn, viz. from Britain, Eg. 74; even used of a voyage from thence to Iceland, Ráðólfr ok Jólfgeir bræðr kómu vestan um haf til Íslands, Landn. 298.2. of position without motion; fyrir vestan (with acc.), on the western side of; fyrir vestan vötnin, Nj. 196; fyrir vestan Heinabergs-sand Sóta nes, 158, Fms. i. 60, Landn. 194, passim; út um Álptafjörð fyrir vestan, in the west, Nj. 215.COMPDS: vestanbæjar, vestanferð, vestanfjarðar, vestanlands, vestanmaðr, vestanveðr, vestanverðr, vestanvindr. -
112 ♦ great
♦ great /greɪt/A a.1 grande; grosso; grave; importante; nobile e generoso; forte; intenso: a great painter, un grande pittore; a great loss, una grave perdita; a great friend of mine, un mio grande amico; a great occasion, un'occasione importante3 (fam.) divertente; eccellente; magnifico; meraviglioso: That's great!, (è) fantastico!; Wouldn't it be great if I could go abroad?, non sarebbe meraviglioso se io potessi andare all'estero?; It was great to hear your voice again on the phone, mi ha fatto un immenso piacere risentirti al telefono NOTA D'USO: - bello e beautiful-4 eminente; famoso; insigne; ( con i nomi di re, papa, ecc.) grande, magno: great Victorians, uomini famosi dell'età vittoriana; Alexander the Great, Alessandro Magno; Peter the Great, Pietro il Grande5 (fam.) abile; bravo; bravissimo (a fare qc.): She's great at playing the piano, è bravissima a suonare il pianoforteB n.1 (spec. al pl.) grande; personaggio illustre2 (al pl.) (fam.) – the Greats, gli esami finali per la laurea in discipline umanistiche ( a Oxford e Cambridge)C avv.(fam.) alla grande; benissimo; al meglio: ( tennis, calcio, ecc.) He's not playing great today, oggi non sta giocando al meglio● great and small, grandi e piccoli; (uomini) importanti e di poco conto □ (zool.) great ape, scimmia antropomorfa □ the Great Assize (o the Great Day, the Great Inquest), il Giudizio Universale □ (zool.) great auk ► auk □ great-aunt, prozia □ (astron.) the Great Bear, l'Orsa Maggiore □ the great beyond, l'aldilà □ great big (agg.), grandissimo; enorme; grande e grosso: a great big man, un omone (grande e grosso); We travelled on a great big plane, abbiamo viaggiato su un aereo enorme □ (geogr.) Great Britain, la Gran Bretagna NOTE DI CULTURA: Great Britain: in senso geografico è l'isola che comprende la Scozia, il Galles, e l'Inghilterra, mentre nel contesto politico è sinonimo di Regno Unito (cfr. United Kingdom, sotto united, e British Isles, sotto British) □ great circle, ( geodesia) gran circolo; (geom.) cerchio massimo ( di una sfera) □ (naut.) great-circle, ortodromico: great-circle track, rotta ortodromica □ (zool.) Great Dane, alano; danese ( cane) □ a great deal (of), molto; un bel po' (di): He has a great deal of money, ha molto denaro; He's a great deal better, sta molto meglio □ (econ., stor.) the Great Depression, la Grande Depressione (grave crisi economica iniziata negli USA nell'ottobre del 1929 ed estesasi rapidamente al resto del mondo) □ great divide, (geogr.) spartiacque continentale; (fam. USA) divorzio □ a great eater, uno che mangia molto; un mangione □ (stor.) the Great Fire of London, il Grande Incendio di Londra NOTE DI CULTURA: Great Fire of London: è il terribile incendio che nel 1666 distrusse gran parte della ► «City of London» (► city, def. 3), tra cui l'antica cattedrale di S. Paolo. Le vittime, fortunatamente, furono solo quattro. L'incendio si sprigionò in Pudding Lane, vicino al London Bridge, dove fu poi eretta, ed esiste tuttora, una colonna commemorativa chiamata The Monument ( il monumento) □ (stor.) the Great Game, il Grande Gioco □ Great God!, Dio buono! □ great-grandchild, pronipote ( di nonni) □ great-granddaughter, pronipote ( femmina, di nonni) □ great-grandfather, bisnonno, bisavolo □ great-grandmother, bisnonna, bisavola □ great-grandparent, bisnonno, bisnonna □ great-grandson, pronipote ( maschio, di nonni) □ great-great-grandfather, trisavolo □ great-great-grandmother, trisavola □ great gross, dodici grosse ( cioè 12 volte 144 unità) □ (fam.) a great guy, un tipo eccezionale; un tipo in gamba □ great-hearted, che ha un gran cuore; magnanimo; nobile e generoso □ great-heartedness, magnanimità; generosità □ (zool.) great-horned owl ( Bubo virginianus), gufo della Virginia □ great house, casa principale, più grande delle altre ( in un paese) □ (geogr.) the Great Lakes, i Grandi Laghi ( tra gli USA e il Canada) □ a great many, moltissimi, moltissime □ (bot.) great mullein = Aaron's rod ► Aaron □ great-nephew, pronipote ( maschio, di zii) □ great-niece, pronipote ( femmina, di zii) □ (fam.) to be great on st., essere appassionato di qc.; avere il pallino di qc. □ to be a great one for, avere la passione di: He's a great one for do-it-yourself, ha la passione del fai da te □ (mus.) great organ, grand'organo □ Great Paul, la campana della chiesa di San Paolo ( a Londra) □ (stor.) the Great Plague ( of London), la Grande Peste (di Londra) ( 1664-65) □ (tipogr.) great primer, corpo 18 □ the Great Seal, il sigillo ufficiale ( di uno stato) □ the great staircase, la scala principale □ great thoughts, pensieri nobili, elevati □ (zool.) great tit ( Parus major), cinciallegra □ (anat.) great toe, alluce; dito grosso del piede □ (stor.) the Great Train Robbery, la Grande Rapina del Treno ( 1963) □ great-uncle, prozio □ (geogr.) the Great Wall of China, la Grande Muraglia Cinese □ (stor.) the Great War, la Grande Guerra ( 1914-18) □ a great while, molto (o un bel po' di) tempo □ (zool., Carcharodon carcharias) great white ( shark), squalo bianco □ (arc. o lett.) great with child, incinta □ the great world, il gran mondo; la società elegante; l'aristocrazia □ (astron.) great year, grande anno ( circa 25 800 anni) □ (bot.) greater celandine ( Chelidonium majus), celidonia; erba da porri □ Greater London, la Grande Londra; Londra e i sobborghi NOTE DI CULTURA: Greater London: è la zona amministrativa che comprende la ► «City of London» (► city, def. 3) e 32 distretti detti boroughs: copre circa 1700 kilometri quadrati e ha oltre sette milioni di abitanti □ (mat.) greatest common divisor, massimo comun divisore □ to live to a great age, vivere fino a tarda età □ (fam.) I don't feel too great today, oggi non mi sento in forma NOTA D'USO: - big, grand, great o large?-. -
113 brytyjs|ki
adj. British- Wyspy Brytyjskie the British IslesThe New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > brytyjs|ki
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114 Behr, Fritz Bernhard
[br]b. 9 October 1842 Berlin, Germanyd. 25 February 1927[br]German (naturalized British in 1876) engineer, promoter of the Lartigue monorail system.[br]Behr trained as an engineer in Britain and had several railway engineering appointments before becoming associated with C.F.M.-T. Lartigue in promoting the Lartigue monorail system in the British Isles. In Lartigue's system, a single rail was supported on trestles; vehicles ran on the rail, their bodies suspended pannier-fashion, stabilized by horizontal rollers running against light guide rails fixed to the sides of the trestles. Behr became Managing Director of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which in 1888 opened its Lartigue system line between those two places in the south-west of Ireland. Three locomotives designed by J.T.A. Mallet were built for the line by Hunslet Engine Company, each with two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. Coaches and wagons likewise were in two parts. Technically the railway was successful, but lack of traffic caused the company to go bankrupt in 1897: the railway continued to operate until 1924.Meanwhile Behr had been thinking in terms far more ambitious than a country branch line. Railway speeds of 150mph (240km/h) or more then lay far in the future: engineers were uncertain whether normal railway vehicles would even be stable at such speeds. Behr was convinced that a high-speed electric vehicle on a substantial Lartigue monorail track would be stable. In 1897 he demonstrated such a vehicle on a 3mile (4.8km) test track at the Brussels International Exhibition. By keeping the weight of the motors low, he was able to place the seats above rail level. Although the generating station provided by the Exhibition authorities never operated at full power, speeds over 75mph (120 km/h) were achieved.Behr then promoted the Manchester-Liverpool Express Railway, on which monorail trains of this type running at speeds up to 110mph (177km/h) were to link the two cities in twenty minutes. Despite strong opposition from established railway companies, an Act of Parliament authorizing it was made in 1901. The Act also contained provision for the Board of Trade to require experiments to prove the system's safety. In practice this meant that seven miles of line, and a complete generating station to enable trains to travel at full speed, must be built before it was known whether the Board would give its approval for the railway or not. Such a condition was too severe for the scheme to attract investors and it remained stillborn.[br]Further ReadingH.Fayle, 1946, The Narrow Gauge Railways of Ireland, Greenlake Publications, Part 2, ch. 2 (describes the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway and Behr's work there).D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions ofthe Newcomen Society 55 (covers mainly the high speed lines).See also: Brennan, LouisPJGR -
115 Bulleid, Oliver Vaughan Snell
[br]b. 19 September 1882 Invercargill, New Zealandd. 25 April 1970 Malta[br]New Zealand (naturalized British) locomotive engineer noted for original experimental work in the 1940s and 1950s.[br]Bulleid's father died in 1889 and mother and son returned to the UK from New Zealand; Bulleid himself became a premium apprentice under H.A. Ivatt at Doncaster Works, Great Northern Railway (GNR). After working in France and for the Board of Trade, Bulleid returned to the GNR in 1912 as Personal Assistant to Chief Mechanical Engineer H.N. Gresley. After a break for war service, he returned as Assistant to Gresley on the latter's appointment as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London \& North Eastern Railway in 1923. He was closely associated with Gresley during the late 1920s and early 1930s.In 1937 Bulleid was appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern Railway (SR). Concentration of resources on electrification had left the Southern short of up-to-date steam locomotives, which Bulleid proceeded to provide. His first design, the "Merchant Navy" class 4–6– 2, appeared in 1941 with chain-driven valve gear enclosed in an oil-bath, and other novel features. A powerful "austerity" 0−6−0 appeared in 1942, shorn of all inessentials to meet wartime conditions, and a mixed-traffic 4−6−2 in 1945. All were largely successful.Under Bulleid's supervision, three large, mixed-traffic, electric locomotives were built for the Southern's 660 volt DC system and incorporated flywheel-driven generators to overcome the problem of interruptions in the live rail. Three main-line diesel-electric locomotives were completed after nationalization of the SR in 1948. All were carried on bogies, as was Bulleid's last steam locomotive design for the SR, the "Leader" class 0−6−6−0 originally intended to meet a requirement for a large, passenger tank locomotive. The first was completed after nationalization of the SR, but the project never went beyond trials. Marginally more successful was a double-deck, electric, suburban, multiple-unit train completed in 1949, with alternate high and low compartments to increase train capacity but not length. The main disadvantage was the slow entry and exit by passengers, and the type was not perpetuated, although the prototype train ran in service until 1971.In 1951 Bulleid moved to Coras Iompair Éireann, the Irish national transport undertaking, as Chief Mechanical Engineer. There he initiated a large-scale plan for dieselization of the railway system in 1953, the first such plan in the British Isles. Simultaneously he developed, with limited success, a steam locomotive intended to burn peat briquettes: to burn peat, the only native fuel, had been a long-unfulfilled ambition of railway engineers in Ireland. Bulleid retired in 1958.[br]BibliographyBulleid took out six patents between 1941 and 1956, covering inter alia valve gear, boilers, brake apparatus and wagon underframes.Further ReadingH.A.V.Bulleid, 1977, Bulleid of the Southern, Shepperton: Ian Allan (a good biography written by the subject's son).C.Fryer, 1990, Experiments with Steam, Wellingborough: Patrick Stephens (provides details of the austerity 0–6–0, the "Leader" locomotive and the peat-burning locomotive: see Chs 19, 20 and 21 respectively).PJGRBiographical history of technology > Bulleid, Oliver Vaughan Snell
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116 Vignoles, Charles Blacker
[br]b. 31 May 1793 Woodbrook, Co. Wexford, Irelandd. 17 November 1875 Hythe, Hampshire, England[br]English surveyor and civil engineer, pioneer of railways.[br]Vignoles, who was of Huguenot descent, was orphaned in infancy and brought up in the family of his grandfather, Dr Charles Hutton FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After service in the Army he travelled to America, arriving in South Carolina in 1817. He was appointed Assistant to the state's Civil Engineer and surveyed much of South Carolina and subsequently Florida. After his return to England in 1823 he established himself as a civil engineer in London, and obtained work from the brothers George and John Rennie.In 1825 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) lost their application for an Act of Parliament, discharged their engineer George Stephenson and appointed the Rennie brothers in his place. They in turn employed Vignoles to resurvey the railway, taking a route that would minimize objections. With Vignoles's route, the company obtained its Act in 1826 and appointed Vignoles to supervise the start of construction. After Stephenson was reappointed Chief Engineer, however, he and Vignoles proved incompatible, with the result that Vignoles left the L \& MR early in 1827.Nevertheless, Vignoles did not sever all connection with the L \& MR. He supported John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in the construction of the locomotive Novelty and was present when it competed in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He attended the opening of the L \& MR in 1830 and was appointed Engineer to two railways which connected with it, the St Helens \& Runcorn Gap and the Wigan Branch (later extended to Preston as the North Union); he supervised the construction of these.After the death of the Engineer to the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway, Vignoles supervised construction: the railway, the first in Ireland, was opened in 1834. He was subsequently employed in surveying and constructing many railways in the British Isles and on the European continent; these included the Eastern Counties, the Midland Counties, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester (which proved for him a financial disaster from which he took many years to recover), and the Waterford \& Limerick. He probably discussed rail of flat-bottom section with R.L. Stevens during the winter of 1830–1 and brought it into use in the UK for the first time in 1836 on the London \& Croydon Railway: subsequently rail of this section became known as "Vignoles rail". He considered that a broader gauge than 4 ft 8½ in. (1.44 m) was desirable for railways, although most of those he built were to this gauge so that they might connect with others. He supported the atmospheric system of propulsion during the 1840s and was instrumental in its early installation on the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway's Dalkey extension. Between 1847 and 1853 he designed and built the noted multi-span suspension bridge at Kiev, Russia, over the River Dnieper, which is more than half a mile (800 m) wide at that point.Between 1857 and 1863 he surveyed and then supervised the construction of the 155- mile (250 km) Tudela \& Bilbao Railway, which crosses the Cantabrian Pyrenees at an altitude of 2,163 ft (659 m) above sea level. Vignoles outlived his most famous contemporaries to become the grand old man of his profession.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFellow of the Royal Astronomical Society 1829. FRS 1855. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1869–70.Bibliography1830, jointly with John Ericsson, British patent no. 5,995 (a device to increase the capability of steam locomotives on grades, in which rollers gripped a third rail).1823, Observations upon the Floridas, New York: Bliss \& White.1870, Address on His Election as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers.Further ReadingK.H.Vignoles, 1982, Charles Blacker Vignoles: Romantic Engineer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (good modern biography by his great-grandson).See also: Samuda, Joseph d'AguilarPJGRBiographical history of technology > Vignoles, Charles Blacker
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117 Walschaert, Egide
SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 20 January 1820 Mechlin, Belgiumd. 18 February 1901 Saint-Lilies, Brussels, Belgium[br]Belgian inventor of Walschaerrt valve gear for steam engines.[br]Walschaert was appointed Foreman of the Brussels Midi workshops of the Belgian State Railways in 1844, when they were opened, and remained in this position until 1885. He invented his valve gear the year he took up his appointment and was allowed to fit it to a 2–2–2 locomotive in 1848, the results being excellent. It was soon adopted in Belgium and to a lesser extent in France, but although it offered accessibility, light weight and mechanical efficiency, railways elsewhere were remarkably slow to take it up. It was first used in the British Isles in 1878, on a 0–4–4 tank locomotive built to the patent of Robert Fairlie, but was not used again there until 1890. By contrast, Fairlie had already used Walchaert's valve gear in 1873, on locomotives for New Zealand, and when New Zealand Railways started to build their own locomotives in 1889 they perpetuated it. The valve gear was only introduced to the USA following a visit by an executive of the Baldwin Locomotive Works to New Zealand ten years later. Subsequently it came to be used almost everywhere there were steam locomotives. Walschaert himself invented other improvements for steam engines, but none with lasting effect.[br]Further ReadingP.Ransome-Wallis (ed.), 1959, The Concise Encyclopaedia, of World Railway Locomotives, London: Hutchinson (includes both a brief biography of Walschaert (p.502) and a technical description of his valve gear (p. 298)).E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, London: The Locomotive Publishing Co., pp. 224 and 289 (describes the introduction of the valve gear to Britain).J.B.Snell, 1964, Early Railways, London: Weidenfeld \& Nicolson, 103.PJGR -
118 Watson-Watt, Sir Robert Alexander
[br]b. 13 April 1892 Brechin, Angus, Scotlandd. 6 December 1973 Inverness, Scotland[br]Scottish engineer and scientific adviser known for his work on radar.[br]Following education at Brechin High School, Watson-Watt entered University College, Dundee (then a part of the University of St Andrews), obtaining a BSc in engineering in 1912. From 1912 until 1921 he was Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy at St Andrews, but during the First World War he also held various posts in the Meteorological Office. During. this time, in 1916 he proposed the use of cathode ray oscillographs for radio-direction-finding displays. He joined the newly formed Radio Research Station at Slough when it was opened in 1924, and 3 years later, when it amalgamated with the Radio Section of the National Physical Laboratory, he became Superintendent at Slough. At this time he proposed the name "ionosphere" for the ionized layer in the upper atmosphere. With E.V. Appleton and J.F.Herd he developed the "squegger" hard-valve transformer-coupled timebase and with the latter devised a direction-finding radio-goniometer.In 1933 he was asked to investigate possible aircraft counter-measures. He soon showed that it was impossible to make the wished-for radio "death-ray", but had the idea of using the detection of reflected radio-waves as a means of monitoring the approach of enemy aircraft. With six assistants he developed this idea and constructed an experimental system of radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) in which arrays of aerials were used to detect the reflected signals and deduce the bearing and height. To realize a practical system, in September 1936 he was appointed Director of the Bawdsey Research Station near Felixstowe and carried out operational studies of radar. The result was that within two years the East Coast of the British Isles was equipped with a network of radar transmitters and receivers working in the 7–14 metre band—the so-called "chain-home" system—which did so much to assist the efficient deployment of RAF Fighter Command against German bombing raids on Britain in the early years of the Second World War.In 1938 he moved to the Air Ministry as Director of Communications Development, becoming Scientific Adviser to the Air Ministry and Ministry of Aircraft Production in 1940, then Deputy Chairman of the War Cabinet Radio Board in 1943. After the war he set up Sir Robert Watson-Watt \& Partners, an industrial consultant firm. He then spent some years in relative retirement in Canada, but returned to Scotland before his death.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1942. CBE 1941. FRS 1941. US Medal of Merit 1946. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1948. Franklin Institute Elliot Cresson Medal 1957. LLD St Andrews 1943. At various times: President, Royal Meteorological Society, Institute of Navigation and Institute of Professional Civil Servants; Vice-President, American Institute of Radio Engineers.Bibliography1923, with E.V.Appleton \& J.F.Herd, British patent no. 235,254 (for the "squegger"). 1926, with J.F.Herd, "An instantaneous direction reading radio goniometer", Journal ofthe Institution of Electrical Engineers 64:611.1933, The Cathode Ray Oscillograph in Radio Research.1935, Through the Weather Hours (autobiography).1936, "Polarisation errors in direction finders", Wireless Engineer 13:3. 1958, Three Steps to Victory.1959, The Pulse of Radar.1961, Man's Means to his End.Further ReadingS.S.Swords, 1986, Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar, Stevenage: Peter Peregrinus.KFBiographical history of technology > Watson-Watt, Sir Robert Alexander
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119 Britanya
1.Britain. 2. British, of Britain. - Adaları the British Isles. -
120 in
1. [ın] n1. 1) (the ins) pl парл. разг. политическая партия, находящаяся у власти [см. тж.♢
]2) обыкн. pl находящийся у власти; влиятельное лицоhe is one of the ins in top management - он одно из влиятельных лиц в руководстве компаний
3) влияние, власть; связиhe has an in with the Senator - сенатор прислушивается к его мнению; разг. он свой человек у сенатора
he's got an in with influential people - у него есть связи среди влиятельных людей
2. pl команда, отбивающая мяч (крикет, бейсбол)♢
the ins and (the) outs - а) правящая партия и партия, лишившаяся власти; б) детали, особенности, сложности2. [ın] ato know all the ins and outs of smth. - разбираться во всех тонкостях дела /вопроса/, знать все ходы и выходы /все углы и закоулки/
1. расположенный внутри, внутренний2. направленный, обращённый вовнутрь3. находящийся у власти4. разг. предназначенный для узкого круга, для посвящённыхsome in jokes - шутки, понятные только посвящённым
an in gathering - узкий круг, свои люди
to feel in - чувствовать себя участником или членом чего-л., испытывать чувство общности, приобщённости
5. 1) разг. модный, популярный2) отзывающийся на всё новое6. спорт. подающий3. [ın] advthe in side - команда, подающая мяч (крикет, бейсбол)
1. 1) внутриis anyone in? - есть ли тут /там/ кто-нибудь?
the ball is in! - спорт. (мяч) хорош!
2) дома; у себя (на работе, в своём кабинете и т. п.)he is not in today - его нет сегодня (дома, на работе и т. п.)
3) внутрь, туда; передаётся тж. глагольными приставкамиcome in! - войдите!
bring him in! - введите его!
4) с внутренней стороны2. амер. указывает на длительность процесса:3. в сочетаниях:to be in - а) прибывать; the mail is in - почта поступила; the train isn't in yet - поезд ещё не прибыл; б) быть убранным; the harvest is in - урожай убран; в) наступать ( о сезоне); spring is in - наступила весна; strawberries are in - наступил сезон клубники; football is over and hockey is in - сезон футбола окончился, наступил сезон хоккея; г) быть в моде; short skirts are in again - вновь модны короткие юбки; д) быть в тюрьме; what is he in for? - за что его посадили?; е) быть у власти; the Liberal candidate is in - прошёл кандидат либералов; ж) гореть; is the fire still in? - огонь ещё горит?; to keep the fire in - поддерживать огонь; з) спорт. подавать мяч (крикет, бейсбол); which side is in? - какая команда подаёт?
♢
to have it in for smb. - иметь зуб на кого-л.year in, year out, day in, day out, etc - из года в год, изо дня в день и т. п.; монотонно
in and out - а) снаружи и внутри; б) то внутрь, то наружу; то туда, то сюда
to know smth. in and out - знать что-л. досконально
in with it! - внесите сюда!
to be (well) in with smb. - быть в хороших отношениях с кем-л.; пользоваться чьим-л. расположением; разг. быть вхожим к кому-л.
not to be in it - разг. не иметь преимущества перед кем-л., чем-л.
his rivals are not in it with him - его соперники не могут с ним сравниться
to be in for smth. - а) находиться в ожидании чего-л. (особ. неприятного); he knows he is in for it - он знает, что ему от этого не уйти; we are in for a storm - грозы не миновать; she is in for a rude awakening - её ожидает горькое разочарование; he is in for a long stay there - ему предстоит долго находиться там; б) быть согласным принять участие в чём-л.
to be in on smth. - разг. быть участником чего-л.
4. [ın] v диал.these firms are in on nearly every big deal - эти фирмы участвуют почти во всех крупных сделках
1. собирать, убиратьin the hay before it rains - уберите сено, пока нет дождя
2. окружать, огораживать5. [ın] prep1) нахождение в пределах или внутри чего-л. в, на2) нахождение в каком-л. месте в, наin the sky - на /в/ небе
in town [in the country] - в городе [в деревне]
in the distance - вдали, вдалеке
her eyes were serious in her smiling face - глаза на её улыбающемся лице были серьёзны
in the second chapter, in chapter two - во второй главе
in Pushkin - у Пушкина, в произведениях Пушкина
in which direction did he go? - в какую сторону он пошёл?
to put smth. in one's pocket - положить что-л. в карман
2. во временном значении указывает на момент или период времени, часть суток, время года, год, век и т. п. в, в течение, за, через; вместе с сущ. передаётся тж. соответствующими наречиямиin the daytime - в дневное время, днём
in (the year) 1960 - в 1960 г.
in the 19th century - в XIX в.
in the 80's, in the eighties - в 80-е годы
in recent years - в /за/ последние годы
in the days of, in the time(s) of - во времена
in due time - в своё /соответствующее/ время
in good time - незамедлительно; своевременно; заблаговременно
to do smth. in no time - сделать что-л. мгновенно /быстро/
I'll do it /I did it/ in two hours - я сделаю /я сделал/ это за два часа
3. указывает на атмосферные и др. внешние условия в, наin good [bad] weather - в хорошую [плохую] погоду
to go out in the rain [in the storm] - выходить в дождь [в грозу]
4. указывает на обстоятельства, условия в; в сочетании с герундием может передаваться деепричастиемin crossing the street - переходя улицу /при переходе через улицу/
lost in transit - утерян при перевозке /в пути/
5. указывает на физическое или душевное состояние кого-л., состояние предмета и т. п. вhe is in bad [in good] health - он болен [здоров]
to be in good [in bad] condition /state/ - быть в хорошем [в плохом] состоянии
in a troubled state - обеспокоенный, взволнованный
6. указывает на внешний вид, одежду и т. п. вwhat shall I go in? - что мне надеть?, в чём мне пойти?
a sofa upholstered in leather - кушетка, обитая кожей
7. указывает на причину или цель в, отto cry out in alarm [in surprise] - закричать /вскрикнуть/ от страха [от удивления]
in answer, in reply - в ответ
in smb.'s behalf - в чьих-л. интересах
in behalf of smb. - в пользу кого-л.
in preparation for smth. - готовясь к чему-л.; в порядке подготовки к чему-л.
in implementation /fulfilment/ of smth. - в осуществление чего-л.
8. указывает на образ действия, стиль и т. п. в; передаётся тж. твор. падежом, а в сочетании с сущ. тж. наречиямиin haste - в спешке, второпях
to speak in a low [in a loud] voice - говорить тихим [громким] голосом
to talk in whispers /in a whisper/ - говорить шёпотом
in accordance with - в соответствии с, согласно
9. указывает на характер расположения лиц, предметов по; передаётся тж. твор. падежом, а в сочетании с сущ. тж. наречиямиbooks packed in dozens - книги, упакованные по двенадцать штук
in bulk - а) внавалку; б) целиком
to have a stake in smth. - быть заинтересованным в чём-л.
to limit arms in types and numbers - ограничивать вооружения по видам и количествам
a foot in length [in width] - фут в длину [в ширину]
there is nothing in my size - моего размера ничего нет (об одежде и т. п.)
he is advanced in years - он уже в годах, он уже не молод
she is weak in English [physics] - она слаба в английском языке [в физике]
a book [a lecture, an examination] in mathematics - книга [лекция, экзамен] по математике
11. указывает на1) участие в чём-л. вaccomplices in a crime - соучастники преступления /в преступлении/
2) включение вthere is 10 per cent for service in the bill - в счёт входят 10 процентов за обслуживание
the coldest day in the last three months - самый холодный день за последние три месяца
I did not know he had it in him - а) я не знал за ним таких качеств; б) я не знал, что он способен на это
12. указывает на место работы, род занятий, вид или область деятельности, принадлежность к определённой группе лиц в; передаётся тж. твор. падежомto work in an office - работать в учреждении /конторе/
to be in trade - заниматься торговлей; работать в торговле
he is in politics - он является политическим деятелем, он занимается политикой
he played an important role in promoting exports - он сыграл важную роль в развитии /в деле развития/ экспорта
13. указывает на способ выражения, средство, материал и т. п.in real terms - в реальном исчислении /выражении/
in black and white - разг. чёрным по белому, в письменной или печатной форме
a letter written in pencil - письмо, написанное карандашом
14. указывает на количественное соотношение и разделение на, в, изone in ten - каждый десятый, один из десяти
in some measure - в какой-то мере, до некоторой степени
in all - в целом, в общей сложности
he is not in the slightest degree interested - он ни в малейшей степени не заинтересован
17. употребляется с различными глаголами [см. в соответствующих глаголах]18. в сочетаниях:in front of - перед, впереди; у
he stood in front of a grocer's window - он стоял перед витриной бакалейного магазина
to get in front of oneself - амер. разг. действовать быстро и энергично; превзойти самого себя
in general - а) в общем; в общем плане; в целом; б) вообще
they liked everything in general, but the pictures in particular - им понравилось вообще всё, но больше всего картины
in itself - сам по себе; как таковой
the thing in itself is not valuable - этот предмет сам по себе не является ценным
in the end - в конечном счёте; в конце концов; наконец
in use - в употреблении, используемый
in return - в ответ; в обмен, взамен; в свою очередь, со своей стороны; в порядке компенсации, в оплату
другие сочетания см. под соответствующими словами♢
in box - ещё не поступившие в работу ( о документах)in part - частично, отчасти
the report says in part - в докладе, в частности, говорится
in that - в том отношении, что; тем что; поскольку; так как
this decision did more harm than good in that it made the procedure still more complicated - это решение принесло больше вреда, чем пользы, так как процедура ещё более усложнилась
См. также в других словарях:
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