boiler+iron

boiler iron

boiler irons

boiler plate

boiler plates

• boiler iron

• boiler plate

1) Naval: boiler iron, boiler plate

2) Construction: boiler sheet

3) Metallurgy: (толстолистовая) boiler steel, boiler steel

1) General subject: boiler-plate

2) Engineering: boiler plate

3) Construction: boiler iron

4) Railway term: boiler sheet

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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Born in modest circumstances, Fairbairn nevertheless enjoyed a broad and liberal education until around the age of 14. Thereafter he served an apprenticeship as a millwright in a Northumberland colliery. This seven-year period marked him out as a man of determination and intellectual ability; he planned his life around the practical work of pit-machinery maintenance and devoted his limited free time to the study of mathematics, science and history as well as "Church, Milton and Recreation". Like many before and countless thousands after, he worked in London for some difficult and profitless years, and then moved to Manchester, the city he was to regard as home for the rest of his life. In 1816 he was married. Along with a workmate, James Lillie, he set up a general engineering business, which steadily enlarged and ultimately involved both shipbuilding and boiler-making. The partnership was dissolved in 1832 and Fairbairn continued on his own. Consultancy work commissioned by the Forth and Clyde Canal led to the construction of iron steamships by Fairbairn for the canal; one of these, the PS Manchester was lost in the Irish Sea (through the little-understood phenomenon of compass deviation) on her delivery voyage from Manchester to the Clyde. This brought Fairbairn to the forefront of research in this field and confirmed him as a shipbuilder in the novel construction of iron vessels. In 1835 he operated the Millwall Shipyard on the Isle of Dogs on the Thames; this is regarded as one of the first two shipyards dedicated to iron production from the outset (the other being Tod and MacGregor of Glasgow). Losses at the London yard forced Fairbairn to sell off, and the yard passed into the hands of John Scott Russell, who built the I.K. Brunel -designed Great Eastern on the site. However, his business in Manchester went from strength to strength: he produced an improved Cornish boiler with two firetubes, known as the Lancashire boiler; he invented a riveting machine; and designed the beautiful swan-necked box-structured crane that is known as the Fairbairn crane to this day.

Throughout his life he advocated the widest use of iron; he served on the Admiralty Committee of 1861 investigating the use of this material in the Royal Navy. In his later years he travelled widely in Europe as an engineering consultant and published many papers on engineering. His contribution to worldwide engineering was recognized during his lifetime by the conferment of a baronetcy by Queen Victoria.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Trevithick's father was a tin-mine manager, and Trevithick himself, after limited formal education, developed his immense engineering talent among local mining machinery and steam-engines and found employment as a mining engineer. Tall, strong and high-spirited, he was the eternal optimist.

About 1797 it occurred to him that the separate condenser patent of James Watt could be avoided by employing "strong steam", that is steam at pressures substantially greater than atmospheric, to drive steam-engines: after use, steam could be exhausted to the atmosphere and the condenser eliminated. His first winding engine on this principle came into use in 1799, and subsequently such engines were widely used. To produce high-pressure steam, a stronger boiler was needed than the boilers then in use, in which the pressure vessel was mounted upon masonry above the fire: Trevithick designed the cylindrical boiler, with furnace tube within, from which the Cornish and later the Lancashire boilers evolved.

Simultaneously he realized that high-pressure steam enabled a compact steam-engine/boiler unit to be built: typically, the Trevithick engine comprised a cylindrical boiler with return firetube, and a cylinder recessed into the boiler. No beam intervened between connecting rod and crank. A master patent was taken out.

Such an engine was well suited to driving vehicles. Trevithick built his first steam-carriage in 1801, but after a few days' use it overturned on a rough Cornish road and was damaged beyond repair by fire. Nevertheless, it had been the first self-propelled vehicle successfully to carry passengers. His second steam-carriage was driven about the streets of London in 1803, even more successfully; however, it aroused no commercial interest. Meanwhile the Coalbrookdale Company had started to build a locomotive incorporating a Trevithick engine for its tramroads, though little is known of the outcome; however, Samuel Homfray's ironworks at Penydarren, South Wales, was already building engines to Trevithick's design, and in 1804 Trevithick built one there as a locomotive for the Penydarren Tramroad. In this, and in the London steam-carriage, exhaust steam was turned up the chimney to draw the fire. On 21 February the locomotive hauled five wagons with 10 tons of iron and seventy men for 9 miles (14 km): it was the first successful railway locomotive.

Again, there was no commercial interest, although Trevithick now had nearly fifty stationary engines completed or being built to his design under licence. He experimented with one to power a barge on the Severn and used one to power a dredger on the Thames. He became Engineer to a project to drive a tunnel beneath the Thames at Rotherhithe and was only narrowly defeated, by quicksands. Trevithick then set up, in 1808, a circular tramroad track in London and upon it demonstrated to the admission-fee-paying public the locomotive Catch me who can, built to his design by John Hazledine and J.U. Rastrick.

In 1809, by which date Trevithick had sold all his interest in the steam-engine patent, he and Robert Dickinson, in partnership, obtained a patent for iron tanks to hold liquid cargo in ships, replacing the wooden casks then used, and started to manufacture them. In 1810, however, he was taken seriously ill with typhus for six months and had to return to Cornwall, and early in 1811 the partners were bankrupt; Trevithick was discharged from bankruptcy only in 1814.

In the meantime he continued as a steam engineer and produced a single-acting steam engine in which the cut-off could be varied to work the engine expansively by way of a three-way cock actuated by a cam. Then, in 1813, Trevithick was approached by a representative of a company set up to drain the rich but flooded silver-mines at Cerro de Pasco, Peru, at an altitude of 14,000 ft (4,300 m). Low-pressure steam engines, dependent largely upon atmospheric pressure, would not work at such an altitude, but Trevithick's high-pressure engines would. Nine engines and much other mining plant were built by Hazledine and Rastrick and despatched to Peru in 1814, and Trevithick himself followed two years later. However, the war of independence was taking place in Peru, then a Spanish colony, and no sooner had Trevithick, after immense difficulties, put everything in order at the mines then rebels arrived and broke up the machinery, for they saw the mines as a source of supply for the Spanish forces. It was only after innumerable further adventures, during which he encountered and was assisted financially by Robert Stephenson, that Trevithick eventually arrived home in Cornwall in 1827, penniless.

He petitioned Parliament for a grant in recognition of his improvements to steam-engines and boilers, without success. He was as inventive as ever though: he proposed a hydraulic power transmission system; he was consulted over steam engines for land drainage in Holland; and he suggested a 1,000 ft (305 m) high tower of gilded cast iron to commemorate the Reform Act of 1832. While working on steam propulsion of ships in 1833, he caught pneumonia, from which he died.

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See also: Blenkinsop, John

SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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When Arthur Woolf left the Griffin Brewery, London, in October 1808, he formed a partnership with Humphrey Edwards, described as a millwright at Mill Street, Lambeth, where they started an engine works to build Woolf's type of compound engine. A number of small engines were constructed and other ordinary engines modified with the addition of a high-pressure cylinder. Improvements were made in each succeeding engine, and by 1811 a standard form had been evolved. During this experimental period, engines were made with cylinders side by side as well as the more usual layout with one behind the other. The valve gear and other details were also improved. Steam pressure may have been around 40 psi (2.8 kg/cm²). In an advertisement of February 1811, the partners claimed that their engines had been brought to such a state of perfection that they consumed only half the quantity of coal required for engines on the plan of Messrs Boulton \& Watt. Woolf visited Cornwall, where he realized that more potential for his engines lay there than in London; in May 1811 the partnership was dissolved, with Woolf returning to his home county. Edwards struggled on alone in London for a while, but when he saw a more promising future for the engine in France he moved to Paris. On 25 May 1815 he obtained a French patent, a Brevet d'importation, for ten years. A report in 1817 shows that during the previous two years he had imported into France fifteen engines of different sizes which were at work in eight places in various parts of the country. He licensed a mining company in the north of France to make twenty-five engines for winding coal. In France there was always much more interest in rotative engines than pumping ones. Edwards may have formed a partnership with Goupil \& Cie, Dampierre, to build engines, but this is uncertain. He became a member of the firm Scipion, Perrier, Edwards \& Chappert, which took over the Chaillot Foundry of the Perrier Frères in Paris, and it seems that Edwards continued to build steam engines there for the rest of his life. In 1824 it was claimed that he had made about 100 engines in England and another 200 in France, but this is probably an exaggeration.

The Woolf engine acquired its popularity in France because its compound design was more economical than the single-cylinder type. To enable it to be operated safely, Edwards first modified Woolf s cast-iron boiler in 1815 by placing two small drums over the fire, and then in 1825 replaced the cast iron with wrought iron. The modified boiler was eventually brought back to England in the 1850s as the "French" or "elephant" boiler.

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अयस् a. [इ-गतौ-असुन्] Going, moving; nimble. n.

(-यः) 1 Iron (एति चलति अयस्कान्तसंनिकर्षं इति तथात्वम्; नायसोल्लिख्यते रत्नम् Śukra 4.169. अभितप्तमयो$पि मार्दवं भजते कैव कथा शरीरिषु R.8.43.

-2 Steel.

-3 Gold.

-4 A metal in general.

-5 Aloe wood.

-6 An iron instrument; यदयोनिधनं याति सो$स्य धर्मः सनातनः Mb.6.17.11.

-7 Going. m. Fire. [cf. L. aes, aeris; Goth. ais, eisarn; Ger. eisin].

-Comp. -अग्रम्, -अग्रकम् a hammer, a mace or club tipped with iron; a pestle for cleaning grain.

-अपाष्टि a. Ved. furnished with iron claws or heels.

-कंसः, -सम् an iron goblet.

-कणपम् A kind of weapon, which throws out iron-balls; अयःकणपचक्राश्म- भुशुण्डयुक्तबाहवः Mb.1.227.25.

-काण्डः 1 an iron-arrow.

-2 excellent iron.

-3 a large quantity of iron.

-कान्तः (अयस्कान्तः)

1 'beloved of iron', a magnet, load-stone; शम्भोर्यतध्वमाक्रष्टुमयस्कान्तेन लोहवत् Ku.2.59; स चकर्ष परस्मा- त्तदयस्कान्त इवायसम् R.17.63; U.4.21. अयस्कान्तमयः संक्रामति M. Bh. on P.III.1.7.

-2 a precious stone; ˚मणिः a loadstone; अयस्कान्तमणिशलाकेव लोहधातुमन्तः- करणमाकृष्टवती Māl.1.

-कारः 1 an iron-smith, blacksmith.

-2 the upper part of the thigh.

-किट्टम्, -कीजम् rust of iron.

-कुम्भः an iron vessel, boiler &c.; so ˚पात्रम्.

-कुशा a rope partly consisting of iron.

-कृतिः f.a preparation of iron; one of the ways of curing leprosy (महाकुष्ठचिकि- त्साभेदः).

-गः an iron hammer.

-गुडः 1 a pill; one made of some preparation of iron.

-2 an iron ball; दीप्तशूलष्टर्ययोगुडान् Ms.3.133.

-3 A kind of weapon con- sisting of iron balls; लगुडायोगुडाश्मानः Mb.7.3.16.

-घनः [अयो हन्यते अनेन इति P.III.3.82] an iron hammer, forge hammer; गदापरिघनिस्त्रिंशपट्टिशायोघनोपलैः Mb. 7.25.58. अयोघनेनाय इवाभितप्तम्R.14.33.

-चूर्णम् iron filings.

-जाल a. having iron nets; of impenetrable guiles. (

-लम्) an iron net-work; अयोजालानि निर्मथ्य भित्त्वा रत्नगृहं वरम् Rām.3.35.35.

-ताप a. making iron red-hot.

-दत्, -दंष्ट्र a. Ved. iron-toothed, having iron rims (as chariots); having iron weapons; पश्यन् हिरण्यचक्रान- योदंष्ट्रान् विधोवतो वराहून् Rv.1.88.5.

-दती a. proper name; (स्त्रियां संज्ञायाम् P.V.4.143).

-दण्डः an iron club, K.76.

-धातुः iron metal; अयोधातुं यद्वत्परिलघुरयस्कान्त- शकलः U.4.21.

-पानम् (अयःपानम्) N. of a hell (where redhot iron is forced down the throats of those who are condemned to it).

-पिण्डः A canon-ball.

-प्रतिमा (अयःप्रतिमा) an iron image.

-बाहुः Name of a son of Dhṛitarāṣṭra.

-मलम् rust of iron; so ˚रजः, ˚रसः.

-मुख a. (

-खी f.)

1 having an iron mouth, face, or beak.

-2 tipped or pointed with iron; भूमिं भूमिशयांश्चैव हन्ति काष्ठमयोमुखम् Ms.1.84. (

-खः) an arrow (iron- pointed); भेत्स्यत्यजः कुम्भमयोमुखेन R.5.55.

-शङ्कुः 1 an iron spear;

-2 an iron nail, pointed iron spike, अयःशङ्कुचितां रक्षः शतघ्नीमथ शत्रवे R.12.95.

-शय a. lying in, made of iron, (said of fire).

-शूलम् 1 an iron lance.

-2 a forcible means, a violent proceeding (तीक्ष्णः उपायः Sk.); (cf. आयःशूलिक; also K. P.1; अयःशूलेन अन्विच्छतीत्यायःशूलिकः).

-स्थूण a.

1 (अय˚ or यः˚) having iron pillars or stakes. हिरण्यरूपमुषसो व्युष्टावयः- स्थूणमुदिता सूर्यस्य Rv.5.62.8.

-2 Name of a Ṛiṣi Śat. Br.

-हत a. Ved. embossed in iron-work, made by a priest who wears a golden ring on his finger (B. and R.); रक्षोहा विश्वचर्षणिरभि योनिमयोहतम् Rv.9.1.2.

-हृदय a. iron-hearted, stern, cruel, unrelenting; सुहृदयोहृदयः प्रतिगर्जताम् R.9.9.

लोह a.

1 Red, reddish.

-2 Made of copper, coppery.

-3 Made of iron; भ्रमतश्च वराहस्य लोहस्य प्रमुखे समम् Mb.1. 135.23.

-हः, -हम् 1 Copper.

-2 Iron.

-3 Steel.

-4 Any metal; वस्तून्योषधयः स्नेहा रसलोहमृदो जलम् Bhāg.2. 6.24.

-5 Gold; यथा सौम्यैकेन लोहमणिना Ch. Up.6.1.5.

-6 Blood.

-7 A weapon; अद्भ्यो$ग्निर्त्रह्मतः क्षत्रमश्मनो लोह- मुत्थितम् Ms.9.321.

-8 A fish-hook.

-हः The red goat; कालशाकं महाशल्काः खड्गलोहामिषं मधु Ms.3.272.

-हम् Aloe- wood.

-Comp. -अग्रम् the iron point (फल) of an ar- row; सितलोहाग्रनखः खमाससाद Ki.13.25.

-अजः the red goat.

-अभिसारः, -अभिहारः N. of a military ceremony resembling नीराजन q. v.; लोहाभिसारो निर्वृत्तः कुरुक्षेत्रमकर्दमम् Mb.5.16.93.

-आख्यम् agallochum.

-आमिषः the flesh of the red-haired goat.

-उच्छिष्टम्, -उत्थम्, -किट्टम्, -निर्यासम्, -मलम् rust of iron (मण्डूर).

-उत्तमम् gold.

-कान्तः a loadstone, magnet.

-कारः a blacksmith.

-कुम्भी an iron boiler; लोहकुम्भीश्च तैलस्य क्वाथ्यमानाः समन्ततः Mb.18.2.24.

-घातकः a blacksmith.

-चर्मवत् a. covered with plates of iron or metal; लोह- चर्मवती चापि साग्निः सगुडशृङ्गिका Mb.3.15.8.

-चारकः, -दारकः N. of a hell; असिपत्रवनं चैव लोहदारकमेव च Ms.4. 9.

-चूर्णम् iron-filings, rust of iron.

-जम् 1 bell-metal.

-2 iron-filings.

-जालम् a coat of mail.

-जित् m. a diamond.

-द्राविन् m. borax.

-नालः an iron arrow.

-पृष्ठः a heron.

-प्रतिमा 1 an anvil.

-2 an iron image.

-बद्ध a. tipped or studded with iron.

-मणिः an ingot of gold; यथा सोम्यैकेन लोहमणिना Ch. Up.6.1.5.

-मात्रः a spear.

-मारक a. calcining a metal.

-मुक्तिका red pearl.

-रजस् n. rust of iron.

-राजकम् silver.

-लिङ्गम् a boil filled with blood.

-वरम् gold.

-वर्मन् n. iron- armour, mail.

-शङ्कुः 1 an iron spike.

-2 N. of a hell; लोहशङ्कुमृजीषं च पन्थानं शाल्मलीं नदीम् Ms.4.9.

-शुद्धिकरः, -श्लेषणः borax.

-संकरम् blue steel.

लौह a. (

-ही f.) [लोहमेव लोहस्य विकारः अण्]

1 Made of iron, iron.

-2 Coppery.

-3 Metallic.

-4 Copper-colou- red, red.

-हम् 1 Iron; लौहभारसहस्रेण निर्मिता निरकारि मे Bk. 15.54.

-2 Meat of a red goat; कालशाकं च लौहं चाप्यानन्त्यं छाग उच्यते Mb.13.88.1.

-ही A kettle; ददृशुर्विस्मिता- स्तत्र नरा लौहीः सहस्त्रशः Rām.2.91.68.

-Comp. -आत्मन् m.,

-भूः f. a boiler, kettle, caldron.

-कारः a black- smith.

-जम् rust of iron.

-बन्धः, -न्धम् an iron fetter, irons.

-भाण्डम् an iron vessel.

-मलम् rust of iron.

-शास्त्रम् the science of treating metals.

-शङ्कुः an iron spike.

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Robert Stephenson's father was George Stephenson, who ensured that his son was educated to obtain the theoretical knowledge he lacked himself. In 1821 Robert Stephenson assisted his father in his survey of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway and in 1822 he assisted William James in the first survey of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway. He then went to Edinburgh University for six months, and the following year Robert Stephenson \& Co. was named after him as Managing Partner when it was formed by himself, his father and others. The firm was to build stationary engines, locomotives and railway rolling stock; in its early years it also built paper-making machinery and did general engineering.

In 1824, however, Robert Stephenson accepted, perhaps in reaction to an excess of parental control, an invitation by a group of London speculators called the Colombian Mining Association to lead an expedition to South America to use steam power to reopen gold and silver mines. He subsequently visited North America before returning to England in 1827 to rejoin his father as an equal and again take charge of Robert Stephenson \& Co. There he set about altering the design of steam locomotives to improve both their riding and their steam-generating capacity. Lancashire Witch, completed in July 1828, was the first locomotive mounted on steel springs and had twin furnace tubes through the boiler to produce a large heating surface. Later that year Robert Stephenson \& Co. supplied the Stockton \& Darlington Railway with a wagon, mounted for the first time on springs and with outside bearings. It was to be the prototype of the standard British railway wagon. Between April and September 1829 Robert Stephenson built, not without difficulty, a multi-tubular boiler, as suggested by Henry Booth to George Stephenson, and incorporated it into the locomotive Rocket which the three men entered in the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway's Rainhill Trials in October. Rocket, was outstandingly successful and demonstrated that the long-distance steam railway was practicable.

Robert Stephenson continued to develop the locomotive. Northumbrian, built in 1830, had for the first time, a smokebox at the front of the boiler and also the firebox built integrally with the rear of the boiler. Then in Planet, built later the same year, he adopted a layout for the working parts used earlier by steam road-coach pioneer Goldsworthy Gurney, placing the cylinders, for the first time, in a nearly horizontal position beneath the smokebox, with the connecting rods driving a cranked axle. He had evolved the definitive form for the steam locomotive.

Also in 1830, Robert Stephenson surveyed the London \& Birmingham Railway, which was authorized by Act of Parliament in 1833. Stephenson became Engineer for construction of the 112-mile (180 km) railway, probably at that date the greatest task ever undertaken in of civil engineering. In this he was greatly assisted by G.P.Bidder, who as a child prodigy had been known as "The Calculating Boy", and the two men were to be associated in many subsequent projects. On the London \& Birmingham Railway there were long and deep cuttings to be excavated and difficult tunnels to be bored, notoriously at Kilsby. The line was opened in 1838.

In 1837 Stephenson provided facilities for W.F. Cooke to make an experimental electrictelegraph installation at London Euston. The directors of the London \& Birmingham Railway company, however, did not accept his recommendation that they should adopt the electric telegraph and it was left to I.K. Brunel to instigate the first permanent installation, alongside the Great Western Railway. After Cooke formed the Electric Telegraph Company, Stephenson became a shareholder and was Chairman during 1857–8.

Earlier, in the 1830s, Robert Stephenson assisted his father in advising on railways in Belgium and came to be increasingly in demand as a consultant. In 1840, however, he was almost ruined financially as a result of the collapse of the Stanhope \& Tyne Rail Road; in return for acting as Engineer-in-Chief he had unwisely accepted shares, with unlimited liability, instead of a fee.

During the late 1840s Stephenson's greatest achievements were the design and construction of four great bridges, as part of railways for which he was responsible. The High Level Bridge over the Tyne at Newcastle and the Royal Border Bridge over the Tweed at Berwick were the links needed to complete the East Coast Route from London to Scotland. For the Chester \& Holyhead Railway to cross the Menai Strait, a bridge with spans as long-as 460 ft (140 m) was needed: Stephenson designed them as wrought-iron tubes of rectangular cross-section, through which the trains would pass, and eventually joined the spans together into a tube 1,511 ft (460 m) long from shore to shore. Extensive testing was done beforehand by shipbuilder William Fairbairn to prove the method, and as a preliminary it was first used for a 400 ft (122 m) span bridge at Conway.

In 1847 Robert Stephenson was elected MP for Whitby, a position he held until his death, and he was one of the exhibition commissioners for the Great Exhibition of 1851. In the early 1850s he was Engineer-in-Chief for the Norwegian Trunk Railway, the first railway in Norway, and he also built the Alexandria \& Cairo Railway, the first railway in Africa. This included two tubular bridges with the railway running on top of the tubes. The railway was extended to Suez in 1858 and for several years provided a link in the route from Britain to India, until superseded by the Suez Canal, which Stephenson had opposed in Parliament. The greatest of all his tubular bridges was the Victoria Bridge across the River St Lawrence at Montreal: after inspecting the site in 1852 he was appointed Engineer-in-Chief for the bridge, which was 1 1/2 miles (2 km) long and was designed in his London offices. Sadly he, like Brunel, died young from self-imposed overwork, before the bridge was completed in 1859.

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See also: Pihl, Carl Abraham; Seguin, Marc

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Railways and locomotives

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The Wylam wagonway passed Newburn, and Hedley, who went to school at Wylam, must have been familiar with this wagonway from childhood. It had been built c.1748 to carry coal from Wylam Colliery to the navigable limit of the Tyne at Lemington. In 1805 Hedley was appointed viewer, or manager, of Wylam Colliery by Christopher Blackett, who had inherited the colliery and wagonway in 1800. Unlike most Tyneside wagonways, the gradient of the Wylam line was insufficient for loaded wagons to run down by gravity and they had to be hauled by horses. Blackett had a locomotive, of the type designed by Richard Trevithick, built at Gateshead as early as 1804 but did not take delivery, probably because his wooden track was not strong enough. In 1808 Blackett and Hedley relaid the wagonway with plate rails of the type promoted by Benjamin Outram, and in 1812, following successful introduction of locomotives at Middleton by John Blenkinsop, Blackett asked Hedley to investigate the feasibility of locomotives at Wylam. The expense of re-laying with rack rails was unwelcome, and Hedley experimented to find out the relationship between the weight of a locomotive and the load it could move relying on its adhesion weight alone. He used first a model test carriage, which survives at the Science Museum, London, and then used a full-sized test carriage laden with weights in varying quantities and propelled by men turning handles. Having apparently satisfied himself on this point, he had a locomotive incorporating the frames and wheels of the test carriage built. The work was done at Wylam by Thomas Waters, who was familiar with the 1804 locomotive, Timothy Hackworth, foreman smith, and Jonathan Forster, enginewright. This locomotive, with cast-iron boiler and single cylinder, was unsatisfactory: Hackworth and Forster then built another locomotive to Hedley's design, with a wrought-iron return-tube boiler, two vertical external cylinders and drive via overhead beams through pinions to the two axles. This locomotive probably came into use in the spring of 1814: it performed well and further examples of the type were built. Their axle loading, however, was too great for the track and from about 1815 each locomotive was mounted on two four-wheeled bogies, the bogie having recently been invented by William Chapman. Hedley eventually left Wylam in 1827 to devote himself to other colliery interests. He supported the construction of the Clarence Railway, opened in 1833, and sent his coal over it in trains hauled by his own locomotives. Two of his Wylam locomotives survive— Puffing Billy at the Science Museum, London, and Wylam Dilly at the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh—though how much of these is original and how much dates from the period 1827–32, when the Wylam line was re-laid with edge rails and the locomotives reverted to four wheels (with flanges), is a matter of mild controversy.

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See also: Stephenson, George

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Ports and shipping, Public utilities, Railways and locomotives

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The son of Marc Isambard Brunel and Sophia Kingdom, he was educated at a private boarding-school in Hove. At the age of 14 he went to the College of Caen and then to the Lycée Henri-Quatre in Paris, after which he was apprenticed to Louis Breguet. In 1822 he returned from France and started working in his father's office, while spending much of his time at the works of Maudslay, Sons \& Field.

From 1825 to 1828 he worked under his father on the construction of the latter's Thames Tunnel, occupying the position of Engineer-in-Charge, exhibiting great courage and presence of mind in the emergencies which occurred not infrequently. These culminated in January 1828 in the flooding of the tunnel and work was suspended for seven years. For the next five years the young engineer made abortive attempts to find a suitable outlet for his talents, but to little avail. Eventually, in 1831, his design for a suspension bridge over the River Avon at Clifton Gorge was accepted and he was appointed Engineer. (The bridge was eventually finished five years after Brunel's death, as a memorial to him, the delay being due to inadequate financing.) He next planned and supervised improvements to the Bristol docks. In March 1833 he was appointed Engineer of the Bristol Railway, later called the Great Western Railway. He immediately started to survey the route between London and Bristol that was completed by late August that year. On 5 July 1836 he married Mary Horsley and settled into 18 Duke Street, Westminster, London, where he also had his office. Work on the Bristol Railway started in 1836. The foundation stone of the Clifton Suspension Bridge was laid the same year. Whereas George Stephenson had based his standard railway gauge as 4 ft 8½ in (1.44 m), that or a similar gauge being usual for colliery wagonways in the Newcastle area, Brunel adopted the broader gauge of 7 ft (2.13 m). The first stretch of the line, from Paddington to Maidenhead, was opened to traffic on 4 June 1838, and the whole line from London to Bristol was opened in June 1841. The continuation of the line through to Exeter was completed and opened on 1 May 1844. The normal time for the 194-mile (312 km) run from Paddington to Exeter was 5 hours, at an average speed of 38.8 mph (62.4 km/h) including stops. The Great Western line included the Box Tunnel, the longest tunnel to that date at nearly two miles (3.2 km).

Brunel was the engineer of most of the railways in the West Country, in South Wales and much of Southern Ireland. As railway networks developed, the frequent break of gauge became more of a problem and on 9 July 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into it. In spite of comparative tests, run between Paddington-Didcot and Darlington-York, which showed in favour of Brunel's arrangement, the enquiry ruled in favour of the narrow gauge, 274 miles (441 km) of the former having been built against 1,901 miles (3,059 km) of the latter to that date. The Gauge Act of 1846 forbade the building of any further railways in Britain to any gauge other than 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m).

The existence of long and severe gradients on the South Devon Railway led to Brunel's adoption of the atmospheric railway developed by Samuel Clegg and later by the Samuda brothers. In this a pipe of 9 in. (23 cm) or more in diameter was laid between the rails, along the top of which ran a continuous hinged flap of leather backed with iron. At intervals of about 3 miles (4.8 km) were pumping stations to exhaust the pipe. Much trouble was experienced with the flap valve and its lubrication—freezing of the leather in winter, the lubricant being sucked into the pipe or eaten by rats at other times—and the experiment was abandoned at considerable cost.

Brunel is to be remembered for his two great West Country tubular bridges, the Chepstow and the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, with the latter opened in May 1859, having two main spans of 465 ft (142 m) and a central pier extending 80 ft (24 m) below high water mark and allowing 100 ft (30 m) of headroom above the same. His timber viaducts throughout Devon and Cornwall became a feature of the landscape. The line was extended ultimately to Penzance.

As early as 1835 Brunel had the idea of extending the line westwards across the Atlantic from Bristol to New York by means of a steamship. In 1836 building commenced and the hull left Bristol in July 1837 for fitting out at Wapping. On 31 March 1838 the ship left again for Bristol but the boiler lagging caught fire and Brunel was injured in the subsequent confusion. On 8 April the ship set sail for New York (under steam), its rival, the 703-ton Sirius, having left four days earlier. The 1,340-ton Great Western arrived only a few hours after the Sirius. The hull was of wood, and was copper-sheathed. In 1838 Brunel planned a larger ship, some 3,000 tons, the Great Britain, which was to have an iron hull.

The Great Britain was screwdriven and was launched on 19 July 1843,289 ft (88 m) long by 51 ft (15.5 m) at its widest. The ship's first voyage, from Liverpool to New York, began on 26 August 1845. In 1846 it ran aground in Dundrum Bay, County Down, and was later sold for use on the Australian run, on which it sailed no fewer than thirty-two times in twenty-three years, also serving as a troop-ship in the Crimean War. During this war, Brunel designed a 1,000-bed hospital which was shipped out to Renkioi ready for assembly and complete with shower-baths and vapour-baths with printed instructions on how to use them, beds and bedding and water closets with a supply of toilet paper! Brunel's last, largest and most extravagantly conceived ship was the Great Leviathan, eventually named The Great Eastern, which had a double-skinned iron hull, together with both paddles and screw propeller. Brunel designed the ship to carry sufficient coal for the round trip to Australia without refuelling, thus saving the need for and the cost of bunkering, as there were then few bunkering ports throughout the world. The ship's construction was started by John Scott Russell in his yard at Millwall on the Thames, but the building was completed by Brunel due to Russell's bankruptcy in 1856. The hull of the huge vessel was laid down so as to be launched sideways into the river and then to be floated on the tide. Brunel's plan for hydraulic launching gear had been turned down by the directors on the grounds of cost, an economy that proved false in the event. The sideways launch with over 4,000 tons of hydraulic power together with steam winches and floating tugs on the river took over two months, from 3 November 1857 until 13 January 1858. The ship was 680 ft (207 m) long, 83 ft (25 m) beam and 58 ft (18 m) deep; the screw was 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter and paddles 60 ft (18.3 m) in diameter. Its displacement was 32,000 tons (32,500 tonnes).

The strain of overwork and the huge responsibilities that lay on Brunel began to tell. He was diagnosed as suffering from Bright's disease, or nephritis, and spent the winter travelling in the Mediterranean and Egypt, returning to England in May 1859. On 5 September he suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed, and he died ten days later at his Duke Street home.

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panel, plate, sheet

betad plåt; pickled sheet

durkplåt; checkered plate, chequered plate

förstärkningsplåt; stiffening sheet

galvaniserad plåt; galvanized sheet

grovplåt; heavy plate, thick sheet iron

järnplåt; sheet iron

katodplåt; starting sheet

korrugerad plåt; checkered sheet, chequered plate, iron roofing

märkplåt; rating plate

mässingplåt; sheet brass

pansarplåt; armor plate

pläterad plåt; clad sheet

siktplåt; screen plate, sieve plate

slitplåt; wearing plate

stålplåt; sheet steel

svartplåt; black plate, black sheet

tunnplåt; sheet, thin sheet, thin plate

valsad plåt; rolled sheet

ångpanneplåt; boiler plate

slag, scale, scoria, clinker, culm cinder, dross, scum, sinter, sweepings

basisk slagg; basic blast furnace slag

granulerad slagg; granulated slag

järnslagg; iron cinders, iron dross, iron slag

pannslagg; boiler scale

sur slagg; acid slag, acid sludge

tennslagg; tin dross

vidhäftande slagg; sticky slag

vulkanisk slagg; volcanic scoria

1) General subject: deposit, deposition, froth, fur (в котле, трубах), incrustation, offscum, ream, scale, scum, scurf, skimming, spume, lime, lime scale

2) Naval: furr, iron dross

3) Engineering: boiler deposit (на котле), boiler scale (на котле), crust (в котлах), furring (в котле), sediment, sinter, skim, sludge (в паровом котле), water scale

4) Construction: encrust

5) Railway term: crustification, incrust, incrustant

6) Automobile industry: scale crust, scale incrustation

7) Road works: dirt

8) Metallurgy: scale (котельна), sediment incrustation

9) Physics: scale deposit

10) Jargon: gook

11) Oil: incrustation (на внутренних стенках промыслового оборудования), scaliness

12) Food industry: encrustation

13) Heat: limescale (Твердое, похожее на известь сложное вещество, образующееся при нагреве воды на стенках сосудов и нагревательных элементов.)

14) Makarov: silt

15) Cement: fusing scale, scale coating

1 vapor.

vapor de agua (physics & chemistry) water vapor

al vapor (cooking) steamed

barco de vapor steamer, steamship

máquina de vapor steam engine

2 steamship, liner, steamer, steamboat.

* * *

► nombre masculino

1 (gas) vapour (US vapor), steam

2 (barco) steamship, steamer

► nombre masculino plural vapores

1 MEDICINA coloquial hysteria sing

\

a todo vapor at full steam, at great speed

al vapor COCINA steamed

vapor de agua water vapour (US vapor)

* * *

* * *

1) (gen) vapour, vapor (EEUU)

2) (Náut) steamship, steamer

3) (Med) vertigo, giddiness

4) pl vapores

* * *

a) (Fís, Quím) vapor*, steam

b) (Coc)

c) (Náut) steamer, steamship

- vapor de agua

* * *

= steam, vapour [vapor, -USA].

Ex. The other method was to increase the effective size of the press by using a cylindrical platen, powered either by hand or by steam.

Ex. Exposures to high concentrations of vapours of mothballs by humans, especially young children, can also result in toxicity.

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* al vapor = steamed.

* a todo vapor = full-tilt, at full tilt, full-throttle, at full throttle, at top speed, at full blast, at full speed, at full stretch.

* avanzar a todo vapor = steam ahead, go + full steam ahead.

* a vapor = steam-powered.

* baño de vapor = steam bath.

* barco a vapor = steamboat.

* barco de vapor = steamboat.

* barco de vapor con paletas = paddle-steamer.

* caldera de vapor = steam boiler.

* calentado al vapor = steam-heated.

* calentado mediante vapor = steam-heated.

* cámara de vapor = steam chamber.

* cocer al vapor = steam.

* cocinado al vapor = steamed.

* cocinar al vapor = steam.

* impulsado por vapor = steam-powered.

* liberar vapor = blow off + steam, let off + steam.

* máquina de vapor = steam engine.

* que funciona con vapor = steam-powered.

* soltar vapor = blow off + steam, let off + steam.

* tren a vapor = steam train.

* tren de vapor = steam train.

* turbina a vapor = steam turbine.

* vapor de agua = water vapour.

* * *

a) (Fís, Quím) vapor*, steam

b) (Coc)

c) (Náut) steamer, steamship

- vapor de agua

* * *

* * *

A ( Fís, Quím) vapor*, steam

a todo vapor at full tilt o steam o speed

water vapor*

B ( Coc):

al vapor steamed

mejillones al vapor steamed mussels

C ( Náut) steamer, steamship

* * *

a) (Fís, Quím) vapor^{( conjugate vapor)}, steam

b) (Coc):

◊ al vapor steamed

c) (Náut) steamer, steamship

* * *

vapor nm

1. [de agua] steam;

al vapor steamed;

verduras (cocidas) al vapor steamed vegetables;

barco de vapor steamer, steamship;

máquina de vapor steam engine

2. [emanación] vapour;

los vapores de gases nocivos/de productos volátiles the vapours of noxious gases/volatile products

3. [barco] steamer, steamship

* * *

m vapor, Br

vapour; de agua steam;

cocinar al vapor steam

* * *

vapor nm

1) : vapor, steam

2) : steamer, steamship

al vapor : steamed

* * *

vapor n steam