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benefit+principle

  • 41 Foreign policy

       The guiding principle of Portuguese foreign policy since the founding of the monarchy in the 12th century has been the maintenance of Portugal's status first as an independent kingdom and, later, as a sovereign nation-state. For the first 800 years of its existence, Portuguese foreign policy and diplomacy sought to maintain the independence of the Portuguese monarchy, especially in relationship to the larger and more powerful Spanish monarchy. During this period, the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, which began with a treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the kings of Portugal and England in 1386 (the Treaty of Windsor) and continued with the Methuen Treaty in 1703, sought to use England ( Great Britain after 1707) as a counterweight to its landward neighbor, Spain.
       As three invasions of Portugal by Napoleon's armies during the first decade of the 19th century proved, however, Spain was not the only threat to Portugal's independence and security. Portugal's ally, Britain, provided a counterweight also to a threatening France on more than one occasion between 1790 and 1830. During the 19th century, Portugal's foreign policy became largely subordinate to that of her oldest ally, Britain, and standard Portuguese histories describe Portugal's situation as that of a "protectorate" of Britain. In two key aspects during this time of international weakness and internal turmoil, Portugal's foreign policy was under great pressure from her ally, world power Britain: responses to European conflicts and to the situation of Portugal's scattered, largely impoverished overseas empire. Portugal's efforts to retain massive, resource-rich Brazil in her empire failed by 1822, when Brazil declared its independence. Britain's policy of favoring greater trade and commerce opportunities in an autonomous Brazil was at odds with Portugal's desperate efforts to hold Brazil.
       Following the loss of Brazil and a renewed interest in empire in tropical Africa, Portugal sought to regain a more independent initiative in her foreign policy and, especially after 1875, overseas imperial questions dominated foreign policy concerns. From this juncture, through the first Republic (1910-26) and during the Estado Novo, a primary purpose of Portuguese foreign policy was to maintain Portuguese India, Macau, and its colonies in Africa: Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. Under the direction of the dictator, Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, further efforts were made to reclaim a measure of independence of foreign policy, despite the tradition of British dominance. Salazar recognized the importance of an Atlantic orientation of the country's foreign policy. As Herbert Pell, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1937-41), observed in a June 1939 report to the U.S. Department of State, Portugal's leaders understood that Portugal must side with "that nation which dominates the Atlantic."
       During the 1930s, greater efforts were made in Lisbon in economic, financial, and foreign policy initiatives to assert a greater measure of flexibility in her dependence on ally Britain. German economic interests made inroads in an economy whose infrastructure in transportation, communication, and commerce had long been dominated by British commerce and investors. Portugal's foreign policy during World War II was challenged as both Allied and Axis powers tested the viability of Portugal's official policy of neutrality, qualified by a customary bow to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as minister of foreign affairs, as well as prime minister, during 1936-45, sought to sell his version of neutrality to both sides in the war and to do so in a way that would benefit Portugal's still weak economy and finance. Portugal's status as a neutral was keenly tested in several cases, including Portugal's agreeing to lease military bases to Britain and the United States in the Azores Islands and in the wolfram (tungsten ore) question. Portugal's foreign policy experienced severe pressures from the Allies in both cases, and Salazar made it clear to his British and American counterparts that Portugal sought to claim the right to make independent choices in policy, despite Portugal's military and economic weakness. In tense diplomatic negotiations with the Allies over Portugal's wolfram exports to Germany as of 1944, Salazar grew disheartened and briefly considered resigning over the wolfram question. Foreign policy pressure on this question diminished quickly on 6 June 1944, as Salazar decreed that wolfram mining, sales, and exports to both sides would cease for the remainder of the war. After the United States joined the Allies in the war and pursued an Atlantic strategy, Portugal discovered that her relationship with the dominant ally in the emerging United Nations was changing and that the U.S. would replace Britain as the key Atlantic ally during succeeding decades. Beginning in 1943-44, and continuing to 1949, when Portugal became, with the United States, a founding member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Luso-American relations assumed center stage in her foreign policy.
       During the Cold War, Portuguese foreign policy was aligned with that of the United States and its allies in Western Europe. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the focus of Portuguese foreign policy shifted away from defending and maintaining the African colonies toward integration with Europe. Since Portugal became a member of the European Economic Community in 1986, and this evolved into the European Union (EU), all Portuguese governments have sought to align Portugal's foreign policy with that of the EU in general and to be more independent of the United States. Since 1986, Portugal's bilateral commercial and diplomatic relations with Britain, France, and Spain have strengthened, especially those with Spain, which are more open and mutually beneficial than at any other time in history.
       Within the EU, Portugal has sought to play a role in the promotion of democracy and human rights, while maintaining its security ties to NATO. Currently, a Portuguese politician, José Manuel Durão Barroso, is president of the Commission of the EU, and Portugal has held the six-month rotating presidency of the EU three times, in 1992, 2000, and 2007.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Foreign policy

  • 42 sake

    sake n
    1 ( purpose) for the sake of pour [principle, prestige, nation] ; for the sake of clarity, for clarity's sake pour la clarté ; for the sake of argument à titre d'exemple ; to kill for the sake of killing tuer pour le plaisir de tuer ; to do sth for its own sake faire qch pour le plaisir ; peace/production for its own sake la paix/la production pour la paix/la production ; for old times' sake en souvenir du bon vieux temps ;
    2 ( benefit) for the sake of sb, for sb's sake par égard pour qn ; for my/her/their sake par égard pour moi/elle/eux ; for all our sakes dans notre intérêt à tous ; I'm telling you this for your own sake c'est pour ton bien que je te dis cela ;
    3 (in anger, in plea) for God's/heaven's sake! pour l'amour de Dieu/du ciel!

    Big English-French dictionary > sake

  • 43 on

    on [ɒn]
    sur ⇒ 1A (a)-(d), 1A (f), 1B (a), 1C (a), 1C (d), 1D (a)-(c), 1D (j) à ⇒ 1A (c), 1D (f), 1D (h), 1D (i), 1D (j), 1F (c), 1F (f) en ⇒ 1A (c), 1F (g) par rapport à ⇒ 1C (e) selon ⇒ 1D (d) de ⇒ 1F (d) allumé ⇒ 3 (a) ouvert ⇒ 3 (a) en marche ⇒ 3 (a) de garde ⇒ 3 (c) de service ⇒ 3 (c)
    A.
    ∎ the vase is on the shelf le vase est sur l'étagère;
    ∎ put it on the shelf mets-le sur l'étagère;
    ∎ on the floor par terre;
    ∎ on the ceiling au plafond;
    ∎ there are posters on the walls il y a des affiches aux ou sur les murs;
    ∎ there was blood on the walls il y avait du sang sur les murs;
    ∎ a coat was hanging on the hook un manteau était accroché à la patère;
    ∎ the post with the seagull on it le poteau sur lequel il y a la mouette;
    ∎ he has a ring on his finger il a une bague au doigt;
    ∎ to lie on one's back/side être allongé sur le dos/côté;
    ∎ on this side de ce côté;
    ∎ on the other side of the page de l'autre côté de la page;
    ∎ on page four à la quatrième page, à la page quatre;
    ∎ on the left/right à gauche/droite
    ∎ I had nothing to write on je n'avais rien sur quoi écrire;
    ∎ red on a green background rouge sur un fond vert
    (c) (indicating general location, area)
    ∎ he works on a building site il travaille sur un chantier;
    ∎ they live on a farm ils habitent une ferme;
    ∎ there's been an accident on the M1 il y a eu un accident sur la M1;
    ∎ room on the second floor chambre au second (étage);
    ∎ on Arran/the Isle of Wight sur Arran/l'île de Wight;
    ∎ on Corsica/Crete en Corse/Crète;
    ∎ on Majorca/Minorca à Majorque/Minorque
    ∎ I kissed him on the cheek je l'ai embrassé sur la joue;
    ∎ someone tapped me on the shoulder quelqu'un m'a tapé sur l'épaule
    ∎ the village is right on the lake/sea le village est juste au bord du lac/de la mer
    (f) (indicating movement, direction)
    ∎ the mirror fell on the floor la glace est tombée par terre;
    ∎ to climb on(to) a wall grimper sur un mur;
    ∎ they marched on the capital ils marchèrent sur la capitale;
    ∎ don't tread on it ne marchez pas dessus
    B.
    ∎ I only had £10 on me je n'avais que 10 livres sur moi;
    ∎ she's got a gun on her elle est armée
    ∎ he had a scornful smile on his face il affichait un sourire plein de mépris
    C.
    (a) (indicating purpose of money, time, effort spent) sur;
    ∎ I spent hours on that essay j'ai passé des heures sur cette dissertation;
    ∎ she spent £1,000 on her new stereo elle a dépensé 1000 livres pour acheter sa nouvelle chaîne hi-fi;
    ∎ to put money on a horse parier ou miser sur un cheval;
    ∎ what are you working on at the moment? sur quoi travaillez-vous en ce moment?
    ∎ I am here on business je suis ici pour affaires;
    ∎ to be on strike être en grève;
    ∎ he's off on a trip to Brazil il part pour un voyage au Brésil;
    ∎ to go on safari faire un safari;
    ∎ she was sent on a course on l'a envoyée suivre des cours;
    ∎ I'm on nights next week je suis de nuit la semaine prochaine;
    ∎ he's on lunch/a break il est en train de déjeuner/faire la pause;
    ∎ she's been on the committee for years ça fait des années qu'elle siège au comité
    (c) (indicating special interest, pursuit)
    ∎ she's keen on music elle a la passion de la musique;
    ∎ he's good on modern history il excelle en histoire moderne;
    ∎ she's very big on equal opportunities l'égalité des chances, c'est son cheval de bataille
    ∎ on a large/small scale sur une grande/petite échelle
    (e) (compared with) par rapport à;
    ∎ imports are up/down on last year les importations sont en hausse/en baisse par rapport à l'année dernière;
    ∎ it's an improvement on the old system c'est une amélioration par rapport à l'ancien système
    D.
    (a) (about, on the subject of) sur;
    ∎ a book/film on the French Revolution un livre/film sur la Révolution française;
    ∎ we all agree on that point nous sommes tous d'accord sur ce point;
    ∎ I need some advice on a legal matter j'ai besoin de conseils sur un point légal;
    ∎ could I speak to you on a matter of some delicacy? pourrais-je vous parler d'une affaire assez délicate?;
    ∎ the police have nothing on him la police n'a rien sur lui
    (b) (indicating person, thing affected) sur;
    ∎ it has no effect on them cela n'a aucun effet sur eux;
    ∎ a tax on alcohol une taxe sur les boissons alcoolisées;
    ∎ try it on your parents essaie-le sur tes parents;
    ∎ the government must act on inflation le gouvernement doit prendre des mesures contre l'inflation;
    ∎ he has survived two attempts on his life il a échappé à deux tentatives d'assassinat;
    ∎ it's unfair on women c'est injuste envers les femmes;
    ∎ the joke's on you! c'est toi qui as l'air ridicule!
    ∎ I cut my finger on a piece of glass je me suis coupé le doigt sur un morceau de verre
    ∎ everyone will be judged on their merits chacun sera jugé selon ses mérites;
    ∎ candidates are selected on their examination results les candidats sont choisis en fonction des résultats qu'ils ont obtenus à l'examen
    (e) (indicating reason, motive for action)
    ∎ on impulse sur un coup de tête;
    ∎ the police acted on information from abroad la police est intervenue après avoir reçu des renseignements de l'étranger;
    ∎ I shall refuse on principle je refuserai par principe
    (f) (included in, forming part of)
    ∎ your name isn't on the list votre nom n'est pas sur la liste;
    ∎ the books on the syllabus les livres au programme;
    ∎ on the agenda à l'ordre du jour
    (g) (indicating method, system)
    ∎ they work on a rota system ils travaillent par roulement;
    ∎ reorganized on a more rational basis réorganisé sur une base plus rationnelle
    ∎ on foot/horseback à pied/cheval;
    ∎ on the bus/train dans le bus/train;
    ∎ she arrived on the midday bus/train elle est arrivée par le bus/train de midi;
    ∎ on a bicycle à bicyclette
    ∎ to play a tune on the flute jouer un air à la flûte;
    ∎ who's on guitar/on drums? qui est à la guitare/à la batterie?
    ∎ , Television & Theatre I heard it on the radio/on television je l'ai entendu à la radio/à la télévision;
    ∎ it's the first time she's been on television c'est la première fois qu'elle passe à la télévision;
    ∎ what's on the other channel or side? qu'est-ce qu'il y a sur l'autre chaîne?;
    ∎ on stage sur scène
    ∎ it's all on computer tout est sur ordinateur;
    ∎ on file sur fichier
    E.
    INDICATING DATE, TIME ETC
    ∎ on the 6th of July le 6 juillet;
    ∎ on or about the 12th vers le 12;
    ∎ on Christmas Day le jour de Noël;
    ∎ I'll see her on Monday je la vois lundi;
    ∎ on Monday morning lundi matin;
    ∎ I don't work on Mondays je ne travaille pas le lundi;
    ∎ on a Monday morning in February un lundi matin (du mois) de février;
    ∎ on a fine day in June par une belle journée de juin;
    ∎ on time à l'heure;
    ∎ every hour on the hour à chaque heure;
    ∎ it's just on five o'clock il est cinq heures pile;
    ∎ just on a year ago (approximately) il y a près d'un an
    F.
    ∎ have a drink on me prenez un verre, c'est moi qui offre;
    ∎ the drinks are on me/the house! c'est ma tournée/la tournée du patron!;
    ∎ you can get it on the National Health ≃ c'est remboursé par la Sécurité sociale
    ∎ to live on one's private income/a student grant vivre de ses rentes/d'une bourse d'études;
    ∎ you can't live on such a low wage on ne peut pas vivre avec des revenus aussi modestes;
    ∎ familiar they're on the dole or on unemployment benefit ils vivent du chômage ou des allocations de chômage□ ;
    ∎ to retire on a pension of £5,000 a year prendre sa retraite avec une pension de 5000 livres par an
    ∎ it works on electricity ça marche à l'électricité
    ∎ they live on cereals ils se nourrissent de céréales;
    ∎ we dined on oysters and champagne nous avons dîné d'huîtres et de champagne
    (e) (indicating drugs, medicine prescribed)
    ∎ is she on the pill? est-ce qu'elle prend la pilule?;
    ∎ I'm still on antibiotics je suis toujours sous antibiotiques;
    ∎ the doctor put her on tranquillizers le médecin lui a prescrit des tranquillisants;
    ∎ he's on insulin/heroin il prend de l'insuline/de l'héroïne;
    ∎ he's on drugs il se drogue;
    ∎ familiar figurative what's he on? il se sent bien?
    ∎ he'll deal with it on his return il s'en occupera à son retour;
    ∎ looters will be shot on sight les pillards seront abattus sans sommation;
    ∎ on the death of his mother à la mort de sa mère;
    ∎ on my first/last visit lors de ma première/dernière visite;
    ∎ on the count of three à trois
    ∎ on hearing the news en apprenant la nouvelle;
    ∎ on completing the test candidates should… quand ils auront fini l'examen les candidats devront…
    ∎ the lid wasn't on le couvercle n'était pas mis;
    ∎ put the top back on afterwards remets le capuchon ensuite
    ∎ why have you got your gloves on? pourquoi as-tu mis tes gants?;
    ∎ the woman with the blue dress on la femme en robe bleue;
    ∎ what had she got on? qu'est-ce qu'elle portait?, comment était-elle habillée?;
    ∎ he's got nothing on il est nu
    ∎ to read on continuer à lire;
    ∎ the car drove on la voiture ne s'est pas arrêtée;
    ∎ they walked on ils poursuivirent leur chemin;
    ∎ from now or this moment or this time on désormais;
    ∎ from that day on à partir ou dater de ce jour;
    ∎ well on in years d'un âge avancé;
    ∎ earlier/later/further on plus tôt/tard/loin;
    ∎ on with the show! que le spectacle continue!
    ∎ I've got a lot on this week je suis très occupé cette semaine;
    ∎ have you got anything on tonight? tu fais quelque chose ce soir?
    (e) (functioning, running)
    ∎ put or turn or switch the television on allume la télévision;
    ∎ turn the tap on ouvre le robinet;
    ∎ the lights had been left on les lumières étaient restées allumées;
    ∎ the tap had been left on le robinet était resté ouvert;
    ∎ the car had its headlights on les phares de la voiture étaient allumés
    ∎ I have a bet on j'ai fait un pari
    ∎ to be or go on about sth parler de qch sans arrêt□ ;
    ∎ he's on about his new car again le voilà reparti sur sa nouvelle voiture;
    ∎ what's she on about? qu'est-ce qu'elle raconte?;
    ∎ he's always on about the war/teenagers il n'arrête pas de déblatérer sur la guerre/les adolescents;
    ∎ my parents are always on at me about my hair mes parents n'arrêtent pas de m'embêter avec mes cheveux;
    ∎ I've been on at them for months to get it fixed cela fait des mois que je suis sur leur dos pour qu'ils le fassent réparer
    (a) (working → electricity, light, radio, TV) allumé; (→ gas, tap) ouvert; (→ engine, machine) en marche; (→ handbrake) serré; (→ alarm) enclenché;
    ∎ the radio was on very loud la radio hurlait;
    ∎ make sure the switches are in the "on" position vérifiez que les interrupteurs sont sur (la position) "marche";
    ∎ the "on" button le bouton de mise en marche
    (b) (happening, under way)
    ∎ to be on (actor) être en scène;
    ∎ we're on in ten minutes c'est à nous dans dix minutes;
    ∎ there's a conference on next week il y a une conférence la semaine prochaine;
    ∎ the meeting is on right now la réunion est en train de se dérouler;
    ∎ the match is still on (on TV) le match n'est pas terminé; (going ahead) le match n'a pas été annulé;
    ∎ it's on at the local cinema ça passe au cinéma du quartier;
    ∎ the play was on for weeks la pièce a tenu l'affiche pendant des semaines;
    ∎ your favourite TV programme is on tonight il y a ton émission préférée à la télé ce soir;
    ∎ there's nothing good on (on TV, radio) il n'y a rien de bien;
    ∎ is the party still on? est-ce que la soirée se fait toujours?;
    ∎ is our deal still on? est-ce que notre affaire tient toujours?;
    ∎ the kettle's on for tea j'ai mis de l'eau à chauffer pour le thé;
    ∎ hurry up, your dinner's on dépêche-toi, ton dîner va être prêt
    (c) (on duty → in hospital, surgery) de garde; (→ in shop, administration) de service;
    ∎ I'm on at three o'clock, then off at nine o'clock je commence à trois heures et je finis à neuf heures
    ∎ the odds are twenty to one on la cote est de vingt contre un
    ∎ such behaviour just isn't on! une telle conduite est tout à fait inadmissible!□ ;
    ∎ British it's not on! ça va pas du tout!
    (f) familiar (feasible, possible)
    ∎ we'll never be ready by tomorrow, it just isn't on nous ne serons jamais prêts pour demain, c'est tout bonnement impossible
    ∎ are you still on for dinner tonight? ça marche toujours pour le dîner de ce soir?;
    ∎ shall we say £10? - you're on! disons 10 livres? - d'accord ou tope là!;
    ∎ if you wash the dishes, I'll dry them - you're on! si tu fais la vaisselle, je l'essuie - ça marche!
    ∎ to be on (menstruating) avoir ses ragnagnas
    ∎ we went out together on and off for a year on a eu une relation irrégulière pendant un an
    sans arrêt;
    ∎ he goes on and on about his minor ailments il nous rebat les oreilles avec ses petits problèmes de santé;
    ∎ the play dragged on and on la pièce n'en finissait plus

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > on

  • 44 privacy policy

    E-com
    the means by which an organization reassures customers that personal information they supply—usually over the Internet—will be securely protected, and used only for the stated purpose.
         Most customers are willing to give personal information if they know that it will benefit them. However, privacy is a major concern on the Internet, and needs to be addressed comprehensively. The use of customer information is legislated separately by individual countries, and collecting it and—in particular—moving it between countries can be very complicated, because different countries have different laws.
         However, a basic principle is for an organization to tell the individual clearly why it is collecting the information, and what that information will be used for. If the organization wishes to use the information for other purposes, such as sending out e-mails on special offers, or sharing with partners, the individual should be specifically informed of that intention, and given the opportunity to opt out.
         It is good policy for organizations to allow individuals to check the information held on them, and to delete information if they wish to do so. A proper security procedure is essential. Internet security breaches are increasing, and hackers are particularly interested in breaking into systems that contain personal information.

    The ultimate business dictionary > privacy policy

  • 45 Hulls, Jonathan

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 1699 Campden, Gloucestershire, England
    d. after 1754
    [br]
    English inventor (supposed) of the steamboat.
    [br]
    Hulls was the first in Britain to attempt to employ steam in propelling a vessel in water. His experiment was made on the River Avon at Evesham in 1737, the main idea being to install a Newcomen engine, the only type then known, on a boat in front of the vessel it was intended to propel, and connected to it with a tow-rope. Six paddles in the stern of the tow boat were fastened to a cross axis connected by ropes to another shaft, which was turned by the engine. Hulls undoubtedly showed how to convert the rectilinear motion of a piston into rotary motion, which is an essential principle in steam locomotion, on land or water.
    He is described as "the inventor of the Steamboat" on a portrait that once hung at the Institution of Marine Engineers, and his patent for the steamboat is dated 21 December 1736. He published his Description and Draught of a New-Invented Machine ("for carrying vessels or ships out or into any harbour, port or river against wind and tide, or in a calm: for which His Majesty has granted Letters Patent for the sole benefit of the author for the space of 14 years", 1737); this rare book was reprinted in 1855. According to De Morgan, Hull's work probably gave the idea to Symington, as Symington's did to Fulton. Erasmus Darwin had him in mind when he wrote "drag the slow barge". In 1754 Hulls published The Art of Measuring Made Easy by the Help of a New Sliding Scale, which he patented in 1753 together with a machine for weighing gold coins. He also wrote Maltmakers' Instructor.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    S.Smiles, Boulton and Watt, pp. 72–4. De Morgan, Budget of Paradoxes.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Hulls, Jonathan

  • 46 Koenig, Friedrich

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 17 April 1774 Eisleben, Thuringia, Germany
    d. 17 January 1833 Oberzell, near Würzburg, Germany
    [br]
    German inventor of the machine printing press.
    [br]
    Koenig became a printer and bookseller. Around 1800 he was among those who conceived the idea of mechanizing the hand printing press, which apart from minor details had survived virtually unchanged through the first three and a half centuries of printing. In 1803, in Sühl, Saxony, he designed a press in which the flat forme, carrying the type, was mechanically inked and passed to and from the platen. Whether this ma-chine was ever constructed is not known, but Koenig found little support for his ideas because of lack of technical and financial resources. So, in 1806, he went to England and was introduced to Thomas Bensley, a book printer off Fleet Street in London. Bensley agreed to support Koenig and brought in two other printers to help finance Koenig's experiments. Another German, Andreas Bauer, an engineer, assisted Koenig and became largely responsible for the practical execution of Koenig's plans.
    In 1810 they patented a press which was steam-driven but still used a platen. It was set to work in Bensley's office the following year but did not prove to be satisfactory. Koenig redesigned it, and in October 1811 he obtained a patent for a steam-driven press on an entirely new principle. In place of the platen, the paper was fixed around a hollow rotating cylinder, which impressed the paper on to the inked forme. In Bensley's office it was used for book printing, but its increased speed over the hand press appealed to newspaper proprietors and John Walter II of The Times asked Koenig to make a double-cylinder machine, so that the return stroke of the forme would be productive. A further patent was taken out in 1813 and the new machine was made ready to print the 29 November 1814 issue—in secrecy, behind closed doors, to forestall opposition from the pressmen working the hand presses. An important feature of the machine was that the inking rollers were not of the traditional leather or skin but a composite material made from glue, molasses and some soda. The inking could not have been achieved satisfactorily with the old materials. The editorial of that historic issue proclaimed, 'Our Journal of this day presents to the public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with printing, since the discovery of the art itself Koenig's machine press could make 1,200 impressions an hour compared to 200 with the hand press; further improvements raised this figure to 1,500–2,000. Koenig's last English patent was in 1814 for an improved cylinder machine and a perfecting machine, which printed both sides of the paper. The steam-driven perfecting press was printing books in Bensley's office in February 1816. Koenig and Bauer wanted by that time to manufacture machine presses for other customers, but Bensley, now the principal shareholder, insisted that they should make machines for his benefit only. Finding this restriction intolerable, Koenig and Bauer returned to Germany: they became partners in a factory at Oberzell, near Würzburg, in 1817 and the firm of Koenig and Bauer flourishes there to this day.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Koenig, Friedrich

  • 47 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard

    [br]
    b. 21 October 1833 Stockholm, Sweden
    d. 10 December 1896 San Remo, Italy
    [br]
    Swedish industrialist, inventor of dynamite, founder of the Nobel Prizes.
    [br]
    Alfred's father, Immanuel Nobel, builder, industrialist and inventor, encouraged his sons to follow his example of inventiveness. Alfred's education was interrupted when the family moved to St Petersburg, but was continued privately and was followed by a period of travel. He thus acquired a good knowledge of chemistry and became an excellent linguist.
    During the Crimean War, Nobel worked for his father's firm in supplying war materials. The cancellation of agreements with the Russian Government at the end of the war bankrupted the firm, but Alfred and his brother Immanuel continued their interest in explosives, working on improved methods of making nitroglycerine. In 1863 Nobel patented his first major invention, a detonator that introduced the principle of detonation by shock, by using a small charge of nitroglycerine in a metal cap with detonating or fulminating mercury. Two years later Nobel set up the world's first nitroglycerine factory in an isolated area outside Stockholm. This led to several other plants and improved methods for making and handling the explosive. Yet Nobel remained aware of the dangers of liquid nitroglycerine, and after many experiments he was able in 1867 to take out a patent for dynamite, a safe, solid and pliable form of nitroglycerine, mixed with kieselguhr. At last, nitroglycerine, discovered by Sobrero in 1847, had been transformed into a useful explosive; Nobel began to promote a worldwide industry for its manufacture. Dynamite still had disadvantages, and Nobel continued his researches until, in 1875, he achieved blasting gelatin, a colloidal solution of nitrocellulose (gun cotton) in nitroglycerine. In many ways it proved to be the ideal explosive, more powerful than nitroglycerine alone, less sensitive to shock and resistant to moisture. It was variously called Nobel's Extra Dynamite, blasting gelatin and gelignite. It immediately went into production.
    Next, Nobel sought a smokeless powder for military purposes, and in 1887 he obtained a nearly smokeless blasting powder using nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose with 10 per cent camphor. Finally, a progressive, smokeless blasting powder was developed in 1896 at his San Remo laboratory.
    Nobel's interests went beyond explosives into other areas, such as electrochemistry, optics and biology; his patents amounted to 355 in various countries. However, it was the manufacture of explosives that made him a multimillionaire. At his death he left over £2 million, which he willed to funding awards "to those who during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind".
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1875, On Modern Blasting Agents, Glasgow (his only book).
    Further Reading
    H.Schuck et al., 1962, Nobel, the Man and His Prizes, Amsterdam.
    E.Bergengren, 1962, Alfred Nobel, the Man and His Work, London and New York (includes a supplement on the prizes and the Nobel institution).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Nobel, Alfred Bernhard

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