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1 Abel, Sir Frederick August
[br]b. 17 July 1827 Woolwich, London, Englandd. 6 September 1902 Westminster, London, England[br]English chemist, co-inventor of cordite find explosives expert.[br]His family came from Germany and he was the son of a music master. He first became interested in science at the age of 14, when visiting his mineralogist uncle in Hamburg, and studied chemistry at the Royal Polytechnic Institution in London. In 1845 he became one of the twenty-six founding students, under A.W.von Hofmann, of the Royal College of Chemistry. Such was his aptitude for the subject that within two years he became von Hermann's assistant and demonstrator. In 1851 Abel was appointed Lecturer in Chemistry, succeeding Michael Faraday, at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and it was while there that he wrote his Handbook of Chemistry, which was co-authored by his assistant, Charles Bloxam.Abel's four years at the Royal Military Academy served to foster his interest in explosives, but it was during his thirty-four years, beginning in 1854, as Ordnance Chemist at the Royal Arsenal and at Woolwich that he consolidated and developed his reputation as one of the international leaders in his field. In 1860 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, but it was his studies during the 1870s into the chemical changes that occur during explosions, and which were the subject of numerous papers, that formed the backbone of his work. It was he who established the means of storing gun-cotton without the danger of spontaneous explosion, but he also developed devices (the Abel Open Test and Close Test) for measuring the flashpoint of petroleum. He also became interested in metal alloys, carrying out much useful work on their composition. A further avenue of research occurred in 1881 when he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission set up to investigate safety in mines after the explosion that year in the Sealham Colliery. His resultant study on dangerous dusts did much to further understanding on the use of explosives underground and to improve the safety record of the coal-mining industry. The achievement for which he is most remembered, however, came in 1889, when, in conjunction with Sir James Dewar, he invented cordite. This stable explosive, made of wood fibre, nitric acid and glycerine, had the vital advantage of being a "smokeless powder", which meant that, unlike the traditional ammunition propellant, gunpowder ("black powder"), the firer's position was not given away when the weapon was discharged. Although much of the preliminary work had been done by the Frenchman Paul Vieille, it was Abel who perfected it, with the result that cordite quickly became the British Army's standard explosive.Abel married, and was widowed, twice. He had no children, but died heaped in both scientific honours and those from a grateful country.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsGrand Commander of the Royal Victorian Order 1901. Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath 1891 (Commander 1877). Knighted 1883. Created Baronet 1893. FRS 1860. President, Chemical Society 1875–7. President, Institute of Chemistry 1881–2. President, Institute of Electrical Engineers 1883. President, Iron and Steel Institute 1891. Chairman, Society of Arts 1883–4. Telford Medal 1878, Royal Society Royal Medal 1887, Albert Medal (Society of Arts) 1891, Bessemer Gold Medal 1897. Hon. DCL (Oxon.) 1883, Hon. DSc (Cantab.) 1888.Bibliography1854, with C.L.Bloxam, Handbook of Chemistry: Theoretical, Practical and Technical, London: John Churchill; 2nd edn 1858.Besides writing numerous scientific papers, he also contributed several articles to The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1875–89, 9th edn.Further ReadingDictionary of National Biography, 1912, Vol. 1, Suppl. 2, London: Smith, Elder.CMBiographical history of technology > Abel, Sir Frederick August
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2 Cruickshank, William
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]d. 1810/11 Scotland[br]Scottish chemist and surgeon, inventor of a trough battery developed from Volta's pile.[br]Cruickshank graduated MA from King's College, Aberdeen, in 1765, and later gained a Diploma of the Royal College of Surgeons. When chemistry was introduced in 1788 into the course at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, Cruickshank became a member of staff, serving as Assistant to Dr A.Crawford, the Lecturer in Chemistry. Upon Crawford's death in 1796 Cruickshank succeeded him as Lecturer and held the post until his retirement due to ill health in 1804. He also held the senior posts of Chemist to the Ordnance at Woolwich and Surgeon to the Ordnance Medical Department. He should not be confused with William Cumberland Cruickshank (1745–1800), who was also a surgeon and Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1801, shortly after Volta's announcement of his pile, Cruickshank built a voltaic pile to facilitate his experiments in electrochemistry. The pile had zinc and silver plates about 1½ in2 (10 cm2) with interposed papers moistened with ammonium chloride. Dissatisfied with this arrangement, Cruickshank devised a horizontal trough battery in which a wooden box was divided into cells, each holding a pair of zinc and silver or zinc and copper plates. Charged with a dilute solution of ammonium chloride, the battery, which was typically of sixty cells, was found to be more convenient to use than a pile and it, or a derivative, was generally adopted for electrochemical experiments including tose of Humphrey Davy during the early years of the nineteenth century.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1802.Bibliography1801, article in Nicholsons Journal 4:187–91 (describes Cruickshank's original pile). 1801, article in Nicholsons Journal 4:245–64 (describes his trough battery).Further ReadingB.Bowers, 1982, A History of Electric Light and Power, London (a short account). A.Courts, 1959, "William Cruickshank", Annals of Science 15:121–33 GW -
3 преподавать
1. (вн. дт.) teach* (d. i.; d. to) -
4 преподавать
1) (вн. дт.; сообщать знания) teach (i d)преподава́ть хи́мию — teach [be a lecturer in] chemistry
2) ( работать преподавателем) teach; lectureпреподава́ть в университе́те — lecture at the university
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5 Woolrich, John Stephen
[br]b. 1821 Birmingham, Englandd. 27 February 1850 King's Norton, England[br]English chemist who found in the electroplating process one of the earliest commercial applications of the magneto-electric generator.[br]The son of a Birmingham chemist, Woolrich was educated at King Edward's Grammar School, Birmingham, and later became a lecturer in chemistry. As an alternative to primary cells for the supply of current for electroplating, he devised a magneto generator.His original machine had a single compound permanent magnet; the distance between the revolving armature and the magnet could be varied to adjust the rate of deposition of metal. A more ambitious machine designed by Woolrich was constructed by Thomas Prime \& Sons in 1844 and for many years was used at their Birmingham electroplating works. Faraday, on a visit to see the machine at work, is said to have expressed delight at his discovery of electromagnetic induction being put to practical use so soon. Similar machines were in use by Elkington's, Fern and others in Birmingham and Sheffield. One of Woolrich's machines is preserved in the Birmingham Science Museum.[br]Bibliography1 August 1842, British patent no. 9,431 (the electroplating process; describes the magnetic apparatus and the electroplating chemicals).Further Reading1843, Mechanics Magazine 38:145–9 (fully describes the Woolrich machine). 1889, The Electrician 23:548 (a short account of a surviving Woolrich machine constructed in 1844 and its subsequent history).S.Timmins, 1866, Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District, London, pp. 488– 94.GW -
6 Sturgeon, William
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 22 May 1783 Whittington, Lancashire, Englandd. 4 December 1850 Prestwich, Manchester, England[br]English inventor and lecturer, discoverer of the electromagnet, and inventor of the first electric motor put to practical use.[br]After leaving an apprenticeship as a shoemaker, Sturgeon enlisted in the militia. Self-educated during service as a private in the Royal Artillery, he began to construct scientific apparatus. When he left the army in 1820 Sturgeon became an industrious writer, contributing papers to the Philosophical Magazine. In 1823 he was appointed Lecturer in Natural Science at the East India Company's Military College in Addiscombe. His invention in 1823 of an electromagnet with a horseshoe-shaped, soft iron core provided a much more concentrated magnetic field than previously obtained. An electric motor he designed in 1832 embodied his invention of the first metallic commutator. This was used to rotate a meat-roasting jack. Over an extended period he conducted researches into atmospheric electricity and also introduced the practice of amalgamating zinc in primary cells to prevent local action.Sturgeon became Lecturer at the Adelaide Gallery, London, in 1832, an appointment of short duration, terminating when the gallery closed. In 1836 he established a monthly publication, The Annals of Electricity, Magnetism and Chemistry; and Guardian of Experimental Science, the first journal in England to be devoted to the subject. It was to this journal that James Prescot Joule contributed the results of his own researches in electromagnetism. Due to lack of financial support the publication ceased in 1843 after ten volumes had been issued. At the age of 57 Sturgeon became Superintendent of the Victoria Gallery of Practical Science in Manchester; after this gallery closed, the last five years of his life were spent in considerable poverty.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsSociety of Arts Silver Medal 1825.Bibliography1836, Annals of Electricity 1:75–8 (describes his motor).All his published papers were collected in Scientific Researches, Experimental and Theoretical in Electricity, Magnetism and Electro-Chemistry, 1850, Bury; 1852, London.Further ReadingJ.P.Joule, 1857, biography, in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society 14, Manchester: 53–8.Biography, 1895, Electrician 35:632–5 (includes a list of Sturgeon's published work). P.Dunsheath, 1957, A History of Electrical Engineering, London: Faber \& Faber.GW -
7 преподаватель
1. tutor2. teacher; instructor3. instructor4. lecturerассистент, младший преподаватель — assistant lecturer
Синонимический ряд:учитель (сущ.) педагог; учитель -
8 Davy, Sir Humphry
[br]b. 17 December 1778 Penzance, Cornwall, Englandd. 29 May 1829 Geneva, Switzerland[br]English chemist, discoverer of the alkali and alkaline earth metals and the halogens, inventor of the miner's safety lamp.[br]Educated at the Latin School at Penzance and from 1792 at Truro Grammar School, Davy was apprenticed to a surgeon in Penzance. In 1797 he began to teach himself chemistry by reading, among other works, Lavoisier's elementary treatise on chemistry. In 1798 Dr Thomas Beddoes of Bristol engaged him as assistant in setting up his Pneumatic Institution to pioneer the medical application of the newly discovered gases, especially oxygen.In 1799 he discovered the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide, discovered not long before by the chemist Joseph Priestley. He also noted its intoxicating qualities, on account of which it was dubbed "laughing-gas". Two years later Count Rumford, founder of the Royal Institution in 1800, appointed Davy Assistant Lecturer, and the following year Professor. His lecturing ability soon began to attract large audiences, making science both popular and fashionable.Davy was stimulated by Volta's invention of the voltaic pile, or electric battery, to construct one for himself in 1800. That enabled him to embark on the researches into electrochemistry by which is chiefly known. In 1807 he tried decomposing caustic soda and caustic potash, hitherto regarded as elements, by electrolysis and obtained the metals sodium and potassium. He went on to discover the metals barium, strontium, calcium and magnesium by the same means. Next, he turned his attention to chlorine, which was then regarded as an oxide in accordance with Lavoisier's theory that oxygen was the essential component of acids; Davy failed to decompose it, however, even with the aid of electricity and concluded that it was an element, thus disproving Lavoisier's view of the nature of acids. In 1812 Davy published his Elements of Chemical Philosophy, in which he presented his chemical ideas without, however, committing himself to the atomic theory, recently advanced by John Dalton.In 1813 Davy engaged Faraday as Assistant, perhaps his greatest service to science. In April 1815 Davy was asked to assist in the development of a miner's lamp which could be safely used in a firedamp (methane) laden atmosphere. The "Davy lamp", which emerged in January 1816, had its flame completely surrounded by a fine wire mesh; George Stephenson's lamp, based on a similar principle, had been introduced into the Northumberland pits several months earlier, and a bitter controversy as to priority of invention ensued, but it was Davy who was awarded the prize for inventing a successful safety lamp.In 1824 Davy was the first to suggest the possibility of conferring cathodic protection to the copper bottoms of naval vessels by the use of sacrificial electrodes. Zinc and iron were found to be equally effective in inhibiting corrosion, although the scheme was later abandoned when it was found that ships protected in this way were rapidly fouled by weeds and barnacles.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1812. FRS 1803; President, Royal Society 1820. Royal Society Copley Medal 1805.Bibliography1812, Elements of Chemical Philosophy.1839–40, The Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy, 9 vols, ed. John Davy, London.Further ReadingJ.Davy, 1836, Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy, London (a classic biography). J.A.Paris, 1831, The Life of Sir Humphry Davy, London (a classic biography). H.Hartley, 1967, Humphry Davy, London (a more recent biography).J.Z.Fullmer, 1969, Cambridge, Mass, (a bibliography of Davy's works).ASD -
9 Percy, John
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 23 March 1817 Nottingham, Englandd. 19 June 1889 London, England[br]English metallurgist, first Professor of Metallurgy at the School of Mines, London.[br]After a private education, Percy went to Paris in 1834 to study medicine and to attend lectures on chemistry by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. After 1838 he studied medicine at Edinburgh, obtaining his MD in 1839. In that year he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Queen's College, Birmingham, moving to Queen's Hospital at Birmingham in 1843. During his time at Birmingham, Percy became well known for his analysis of blast furnace slags, and was involved in the manufacture of optical glass. On 7 June 1851 Percy was appointed Metallurgical Professor and Teacher at the Museum of Practical Geology established in Jermyn Street, London, and opened in May 1851. In November of 1851, when the Museum became the Government (later Royal) School of Mines, Percy was appointed Lecturer in Metallurgy. In addition to his work at Jermyn Street, Percy lectured on metallurgy to the Advanced Class of Artillery at Woolwich from 1864 until his death, and from 1866 he was Superintendent of Ventilation at the Houses of Parliament. He served from 1861 to 1864 on the Special Committee on Iron set up to examine the performance of armour-plate in relation to its purity, composition and structure.Percy is best known for his metallurgical text books, published by John Murray. Volume I of Metallurgy, published in 1861, dealt with fuels, fireclays, copper, zinc and brass; Volume II, in 1864, dealt with iron and steel; a volume on lead appeared in 1870, followed by one on fuels and refractories in 1875, and the first volume on gold and silver in 1880. Further projected volumes on iron and steel, noble metals, and on copper, did not materialize. In 1879 Percy resigned from his School of Mines appointment in protest at the proposed move from Jermyn Street to South Kensington. The rapid growth of Percy's metallurgical collection, started in 1839, eventually forced him to move to a larger house. After his death, the collection was bought by the South Kensington (later Science) Museum. Now comprising 3,709 items, it provides a comprehensive if unselective record of nineteenth-century metallurgy, the most interesting specimens being those of the first sodium-reduced aluminium made in Britain and some of the first steel produced by Bessemer in Baxter House. Metallurgy for Percy was a technique of chemical extraction, and he has been criticized for basing his system of metallurgical instruction on this assumption. He stood strangely aloof from new processes of steel making such as that of Gilchrist and Thomas, and tended to neglect early developments in physical metallurgy, but he was the first in Britain to teach metallurgy as a discipline in its own right.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1847. President, Iron and Steel Institute 1885, 1886.Bibliography1861–80, Metallurgy, 5 vols, London: John Murray.Further ReadingS.J.Cackett, 1989, "Dr Percy and his metallurgical collection", Journal of the Hist. Met. Society 23(2):92–8.RLH -
10 Abel, John Jacob
SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology[br]b. 19 May 1857 near Cleveland, Ohio, USAd. 26 May 1938 Baltimore, Maryland, USA[br]American pharmacologist and physiologist, proponent of the "artificial kidney" and the isolator of pure insulin.[br]Born of German immigrant farming stock, his early scientific education at the University of Michigan, where he graduated PhB in 1883, suffered from a financially dictated interregnum of three years. In 1884 he moved to Leipzig and worked under Ludwig, moving to Strasbourg where he obtained his MD in 1888. In 1891 he was able to return to the University of Michigan as Lecturer in Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and in 1893 he was offered the first Chair of Pharmacology at Johns Hopkins University, a position he occupied until 1932. He was a pioneer in emphasizing the importance of chemistry, in its widest sense, in medicine and physiology. In his view, "the investigator must associate himself with those who have laboured in fields where molecules and atoms rather than multi-cellular tissues or even unicellular organisms are the units of study".Soon after coming to Baltimore he commenced work on extracts from the adrenal medulla and in 1899 published his work on epinephrine. In later years he developed an "artificial kidney" which could be used to remove diffusible substances from the blood. In 1913 he was able to demonstrate the existence of free amino-acids in the blood and his investigations in this field foreshadowed not only the developments of blood and plasma transfusion but also the possibility of the management of renal failure.From 1917 to 1924 he moved to a study of the hormone content of pituitary extracts, but in 1924 he suddenly transferred his attention to the study of insulin. In 1925 he announced the discovery of pure crystalline hormone. This work at first failed to gain full acceptance, but as late as 1955 the full elucidation of the protein structure of insulin proved the final culmination of his studies.Abel's dedication to laboratory research and his disdain for matters of administration may explain the relative paucity of worldy honours awarded to such an outstanding figure.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS.Bibliography1913, "On the removal of diffusible substances from the circulating blood by means of dialysis", Transactions of the Association of American Physiologists.Further Reading1939, Obituary Notices, Fellows of the Royal Society, London: Royal Society.1946, Biographical Memoir: John Jacob Abel. 1857–1938, Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.MG -
11 Faraday, Michael
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 22 September 1791 Newington, Surrey, Englandd. 25 August 1867 London, England[br]English physicist, discoverer of the principles of the electric motor and dynamo.[br]Faraday's father was a blacksmith recently moved south from Westmorland. The young Faraday's formal education was limited to attendance at "a Common Day School", and then he worked as an errand boy for George Riebau, a bookseller and bookbinder in London's West End. Riebau subsequently took him as an apprentice bookbinder, and Faraday seized every opportunity to read the books that came his way, especially scientific works.A customer in the shop gave Faraday tickets to hear Sir Humphry Davy lecturing at the Royal Institution. He made notes of the lectures, bound them and sent them to Davy, asking for scientific employment. When a vacancy arose for a laboratory assistant at the Royal Institution, Davy remembered Faraday, who he took as his assistant on an 18- month tour of France, Italy and Switzerland (despite the fact that Britain and France were at war!). The tour, and especially Davy's constant company and readiness to explain matters, was a scientific education for Faraday, who returned to the Royal Institution as a competent chemist in his own right. Faraday was interested in electricity, which was then viewed as a branch of chemistry. After Oersted's announcement in 1820 that an electric current could affect a magnet, Faraday devised an arrangement in 1821 for producing continuous motion from an electric current and a magnet. This was the basis of the electric motor. Ten years later, after much thought and experiment, he achieved the converse of Oersted's effect, the production of an electric current from a magnet. This was magneto-electric induction, the basis of the electric generator.Electrical engineers usually regard Faraday as the "father" of their profession, but Faraday himself was not primarily interested in the practical applications of his discoveries. His driving motivation was to understand the forces of nature, such as electricity and magnetism, and the relationship between them. Faraday delighted in telling others about science, and studied what made a good scientific lecturer. At the Royal Institution he introduced the Friday Evening Discourses and also the Christmas Lectures for Young People, now televised in the UK every Christmas.[br]Bibliography1991, Curiosity Perfectly Satisfyed. Faraday's Travels in Europe 1813–1815, ed. B.Bowers and L.Symons, Peter Peregrinus (Faraday's diary of his travels with Humphry Davy).Further ReadingL.Pearce Williams, 1965, Michael Faraday. A Biography, London: Chapman \& Hall; 1987, New York: Da Capo Press (the most comprehensive of the many biographies of Faraday and accounts of his work).For recent short accounts of his life see: B.Bowers, 1991, Michael Faraday and the Modern World, EPA Press. G.Cantor, D.Gooding and F.James, 1991, Faraday, Macmillan.J.Meurig Thomas, 1991, Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution, Adam Hilger.BB
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