architectural+glass

• architectural glass

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Gen.pl. szkieł

1. ( tworzywo) glass; szkło alabastrowe l. mleczne milk glass; szkło bezpieczne l. bezodpryskowe safety glass; szkło budowlane architectural glass; szkło czeskie optical flint, flint glass; szkło hartowane toughened glass; szkło kryształowe l. ołowiowe lead glass; szkło kwarcowe silica glass, quartz glass; szkło optyczne optical glass; szkło organiczne organic glass; szkło wodne water glass; szkło zbrojone wire glass; huta szkła glassworks; uprawiać coś pod szkłem grow sth under glass; trzymać kogoś pod szkłem przen. be overprotective towards sb.

2. ( naczynia) glassware; szkło artystyczne artistic glass; szkło laboratoryjne laboratory glassware; szkło stołowe table glass.

3. zwykle pl. pot. (= soczewka optyczna) glasses; szkła kontaktowe contact lenses.

1) Engineering: building glass

2) Silicates: architectural glass, construction glass

1) General subject: schmelz, schmelze

2) Engineering: decorative glass

3) Construction: architectural glass

glass-like, glazed.

past participle of spanish verb: acristalar.

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ADJ glazed

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= glass-enclosed, glazed, glassed.

Ex. When he arrived back at the media center, Anthony Datto whisked straight away into his glass-enclosed office, to the right of the entrance.

Ex. Large glazed areas mean that users can enjoy natural daylight, but double glazing, tinting, or architectural shading are necessary to alleviate the worst effects of noise, solar gain and solar glare = Las áreas acristaladas permiten que los usuarios puedan disfrutar de la luz natural, aunque el doble acristalamiento, los cristales ahumados, o las sombras arquitectónicas son necesarios para reducir los efectos negativos del ruido, la radiación solar y el resplandor del sol.

Ex. The frame has only horizontal beams into which the glassed panels are placed.

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* porche acristalado = conservatory.

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glazed

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acristalado, -a adj

1 barrier.

poner barreras a algo (figurative) to erect barriers against something, to hinder something

barreras arancelarias tariff barriers

barrera del sonido sound barrier

2 wall (sport) (de jugadores).

3 obstacle, hindrance, wall.

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► nombre femenino

1 (gen) barrier

2 (en plaza de toros - valla) barrier; (asientos) front row

3 figurado obstacle

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poner barreras to hinder (a, -)

mirar los toros desde la barrera to sit on the fence

barrera aduanera customs barrier

barrera del sonido sound barrier

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1) (=obstáculo) barrier

2) [en carretera] roadblock

3) (Ferro) crossing gate

4) (Taur) (=valla) barrier; (=primera fila) first row

5) (Dep) [de jugadores] wall

6) (Mil) (=barricada) barricade; (=parapeto) parapet

7) (=impedimento) barrier, obstacle

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a) barrier

b) (Ferr) barrier, crossing gate

c) (Taur) ( valla) barrier; ( localidad) front row

- barrera aduanera or arancelaria

- barrera del sonido

- barrera de peaje

- barrera generacional

- barrera idiomática or del idioma

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= hurdle, wall, barrier, curtain, hindrance.

Ex. Schoolchildren, students, and other whose native language is written in a non-Roman script may find alphabetical order according to Roman characters an almost insurmountable hurdle in the use of catalogues and indexes.

Ex. In the map library, the electronic medium is shaking the foundations of cartographic communication and threatening the bring the walls crashing down.

Ex. While the number of projects proposed was innumerable, 3 barriers remain: red tape; hard currency; and Western barriers to providing high technology to the Eastern bloc.

Ex. They are in a position to make a unique positive contribution to dissolving the 'cultural curtain,' as it has been called.

Ex. The overall effect of the labels and signs is not so much help but hindrance through information overload.

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* al otro lado de la barrera = on the other side of the fence.

* atravesar una barrera = break through + barrier.

* barrera arancelaria = trade barrier, tariff barrier.

* barrera arquitectónica = architectural barrier.

* barrera comercial = trade barrier.

* barrera cultural = cultural barrier.

* barrera del sonido = sound barrier.

* barrera de paso a nivel = level-crossing gate.

* barrera de protección = crash barrier.

* barrera de seguridad = crush barrier.

* barrera espacio-temporal = space-time barrier.

* barrera ficticia = glass ceiling.

* barrera física = physical barrier.

* barrera fluctuante = moving wall.

* barrera geográfica = geographic barrier.

* barrera institucional = institutional barrier.

* barrera invisible = glass ceiling, invisible barrier.

* barrera lingüística = language barrier, linguistic barrier.

* barrera racial = colour bar.

* barreras + desaparecer = boundaries + dissolve.

* barrera sicológica = psychological barrier.

* barrera temporal = time barrier.

* derribar una barrera = topple + barrier.

* eliminar barreras = flatten + barriers, tackle + barriers, erase + boundaries.

* eliminar las barreras = break down + barriers.

* eliminar una barrera = topple + barrier.

* el otro lado de la barrera = the other side of the fence.

* encontrarse con una barrera = face + barrier.

* enfrentarse a una barrera = face + barrier.

* levantar barreras = erect + boundaries.

* levantar una barrera = build + wall.

* penetrar una barrera = break through + barrier.

* romper barreras = break down + boundaries, break down + borders.

* romper la barrera del sonido = break + the sound barrier.

* romper las barreras = breach + boundaries, breach + barriers.

* superar barreras = hurdle + barriers.

* superar la barrera del tiempo = cross + time barriers.

* superar una barrera = conquer + barrier.

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a) barrier

b) (Ferr) barrier, crossing gate

c) (Taur) ( valla) barrier; ( localidad) front row

- barrera aduanera or arancelaria

- barrera del sonido

- barrera de peaje

- barrera generacional

- barrera idiomática or del idioma

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1 (para separar) barrier; (obstáculo) barrier

barrera psicológica psychological barrier

ha superado la barrera del 10% it has gone above the 10% mark

no logró superar la barrera del idioma he was unable to overcome the language barrier

una barrera infranqueable or insalvable an insurmountable barrier o obstacle

métodos anticonceptivos de barrera barrier methods of contraception

2 ( Ferr) barrier, crossing gate

3 ( Taur) (valla) barrier; (localidad) front row

customs barrier

trade barrier

( Esp) ticket barrier

( AmL) ticket barrier

sound barrier

superar or romper la barrera del sonido to break the sound barrier

toll barrier

safety barrier

generation gap

natural barrier

safety barrier

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3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) futuro indicativo

a) ( arrastrar) to sweep away

b) ‹ rival› to thrash, trounce

◊ la inundación barrió con todo the flood swept everything away;

◊ barrera de peaje toll barrier;

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barrera nf

1. [para controlar acceso] barrier;

barreras no arancelarias non-tariff barriers;

barreras arquitectónicas [para silla de ruedas] obstructions for wheelchair users;

barreras comerciales trade barriers

2. Ferroc crossing gate

3. [dificultad, obstáculo] barrier;

la barrera del idioma le impedía integrarse the language barrier made it difficult for her to integrate;

el índice bursátil superó la barrera psicológica de los 1.000 puntos the stock market index crossed the psychological barrier of 1,000 points;

superaron la barrera del millón de discos vendidos sales of their album went over the million mark;

poner barreras a algo to erect barriers against sth, to hinder sth;

se casaron saltándose las barreras sociales they married despite the huge difference in their social backgrounds

4. Dep [de jugadores] wall

5. Taurom [valla] = barrier around the edge of a bullring;

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1 barrier;

sin barreras (arquitectónicas) readily accessible (to the disabled), with easy disabled access;

barreras comerciales pl trade barriers

2 DEP jump; de carreras hurdle; en fútbol wall

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barrera nf

obstáculo: barrier, obstacle

barrera de sonido: sound barrier

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barrera n

1. (en general) barrier

2. (valla) barrier / fence

3. (primera fila) front row

4. (en fútbol) wall

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Mies van der Rohe was the son of a stonemason and his early constructional training came from his father. As a young man he gained experience of the modern school from study of the architecture of the earlier leaders, notably Peter Behrens, Hendrik Berlage and Frank Lloyd Wright. He commenced architectural practice in 1913 and soon after the First World War was establishing his own version of modern architecture. His building materials were always of the highest quality, of marble, stone, glass and, especially, steel. He stripped his designs of all extraneous decoration: more than any of his contemporaries he followed the theme of elegance, functionalism and an ascetic concentration on essentials. He believed that architectural design should not look backwards but should reflect the contemporary achievement of advanced technology in both its construction and the materials used, and he began early in his career to act upon these beliefs. Typical was his early concrete and glass office building of 1922, after which, more importantly, came his designs for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929. These designs included his famous Barcelona chair, made from chrome steel and leather in a geometrical design, one which has survived as a classic and is still in production. Another milestone was his Tugendhat House in Brno (1930), a long, low, rectilinear structure in glass and steel that set a pattern for many later buildings of this type. In 1930 Mies followed his colleagues as third Director of the Bauhaus, but due to the rise of National Socialism in Germany it was closed in 1933. He finally left Germany for the USA in 1937, and the following year he took up his post as Director of Architecture in Chicago at what is now known as the Illinois Institute of Technology and where he remained for twenty years. In America Mies van der Rohe continued to develop his work upon his original thesis. His buildings are always recognizable for their elegance, fine proportions, high-quality materials and clean, geometrical forms; nearly all are of glass and steel in rectangular shapes. The structure and design evolved according to the individual needs of each commission, and there were three fundamental types of design. One type was the single or grouped high-rise tower, built for apartments for the wealthy, as in his Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948–51), or for city-centre offices, as in his Seagram Building in New York (1954–8, with Philip Johnson) or his Chicago Federal Centre (1964). Another form was the long, low rectangle based upon the earlier Tugendhat House and seen again in the New National Gallery in Berlin (1965–8). Third, there were the grouped schemes when the commission called for buildings of varied purpose on a single, large site. Here Mies van der Rohe achieved a variety and interest in the different shapes and heights of buildings set out in spatial harmony of landscape. Some examples of this type of scheme were housing estates (Lafayette Park Housing Development in Detroit, 1955–6), while others were for educational, commercial or shopping requirements, as at the Toronto Dominion Centre (1963–9).

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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A year after he began practice as an architect, Gropius was responsible for the pace-setting Fagus shoe-last factory at Alfeld-an-der-Leine in Germany, one of the few of his buildings to survive the Second World War. Today the building does not appear unusual, but in 1911 it was a revolutionary prototype, heralding the glass curtain walled method of non-load-bearing cladding that later became ubiquitous. Made from glass, steel and reinforced concrete, this factory initiated a new concept, that of the International school of modern architecture.

In 1919 Gropius was appointed to head the new School of Art and Design at Weimar, the Staatliches Bauhaus. The school had been formed by an amalgamation of the Grand Ducal schools of fine and applied arts founded in 1906. Here Gropius put into practice his strongly held views and he was so successful that this small college, which trained only a few hundred students in the limited years of its existence, became world famous, attracting artists, architects and students of quality from all over Europe.

Gropius's idea was to set up an institution where students of all the arts and crafts could work together and learn from one another. He abhorred the artificial barriers that had come to exist between artists and craftsmen and saw them all as interdependent. He felt that manual dexterity was as essential as creative design. Every Bauhaus student, whatever the individual's field of work or talent, took the same original workshop training. When qualified they were able to understand and supervise all the aesthetic and constructional processes that made up the scope of their work.

In 1924, because of political changes, the Weimar Bauhaus was closed, but Gropius was invited to go to Dessau to re-establish it in a new purpose-built school which he designed. This group of buildings became a prototype that designers of the new architectural form emulated. Gropius left the Bauhaus in 1928, only a few years before it was finally closed due to the growth of National Socialism. He moved to England in 1934, but because of a lack of architectural opportunities and encouragement he continued on his way to the USA, where he headed the Department of Architecture at Harvard University's Graduate School of Design from 1937 to 1952. After his retirement from there Gropius formed the Architect's Collaborative and, working with other architects such as Marcel Breuer and Pietro Belluschi, designed a number of buildings (for example, the US Embassy in Athens (1960) and the Pan Am Building in New York (1963)).

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Civil engineering

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The son of a farmer, he had worked in gardens since boyhood and at the age of 21 was employed as Undergardener at the Horticultural Society Gardens in Chiswick, from where he went on to become Head Gardener for the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth. It was there that he developed his methods of glasshouse construction, culminating in the Great Conservatory of 1836–40, an immense structure some 277 ft (84.4 m) long, 123 ft (37.5 m) wide and 67 ft (20.4 m) high. Its framework was of iron and its roof of glass, with wood to contain the glass panels; it is now demolished. Paxton went on to landscape garden design, fountain and waterway engineering, the laying out of the model village of Edensor, and to play a part in railway and country house projects.

The structure that made Paxton a household name was erected in Hyde Park, London, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851 and was aptly dubbed, by Punch, the Crystal Palace. The idea of holding an international exhibition for industry had been mooted in 1849 and was backed by Prince Albert and Henry Cole. The money for this was to be raised by public subscription and 245 designs were entered into a competition held in 1850; however, most of the concepts, received from many notable architects and engineers, were very costly and unsuitable, and none were accepted. That same year, Paxton published his scheme in the Illustrated London News and it was approved after it received over-whelming public support.

Paxton's Crystal Palace, designed and erected in association with the engineers Fox and Henderson, was a prefabricated glasshouse of vast dimensions: it was 1,848 ft (563.3 m) long, 408 ft (124.4 m) wide and over 100 ft (30.5 m) high. It contained 3,300 iron columns, 2,150 girders. 24 miles (39 km) of guttering, 600,000 ft3 (17,000 m³) of timber and 900,000 ft2 (84,000 m) of sheet glass made by Chance Bros, of Birmingham. One of the chief reasons why it was accepted by the Royal Commission Committee was that it fulfilled the competition proviso that it should be capable of being erected quickly and subsequently dismantled and re-erected elsewhere. The Crystal Palace was to be erected at a cost of £79,800, much less than the other designs. Building began on 30 July 1850, with a labour force of some 2,000, and was completed on 31 March 1851. It was a landmark in construction at the time, for its size, speed of construction and its non-eclectic design, and, most of all, as the first great prefabricated building: parts were standardized and made in quantity, and were assembled on site. The exhibition was opened by Queen Victoria on 1 May 1851 and had received six million visitors when it closed on 11 October. The building was dismantled in 1852 and reassembled, with variations in design, at Sydenham in south London, where it remained until its spectacular conflagration in 1936.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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In some examples of his work Mendelsohn envisaged bold, sculptural forms, dramatically expressed in light and shade, which he created with extensive use of glass, steel and concrete. Characteristic of his type of early Expressionism was his design for the Einstein Tower (1919), a physical laboratory and observatory that was purpose built for Professor Einstein's research work at Neubabelsburg near Berlin in 1921. As its shape suggests, this structure was intended to be made from poured concrete but, due to technical problems, it was erected in stucco-faced steel and brickwork. Equally dramatic and original were Mendelsohn's department stores, for example the pace-setting Schocken Stores at Stuttgart (1926) and Chemnitz (1928), the Petersdorff Store at Breslau (1927) (now Wrocaw in Poland), and a very different building, the Columbus Haus in Berlin (1929–31). One of his most original designs was also in this city, that for the complex on the great boulevard, the Kurfürstendamm, which included the Universum Cinema (1928). Mendelsohn moved to England in 1933, a refugee from Nazism, and there entered into partnership with another émigré, Serge Chermayeff from Russia. Together they were responsible for a building on the seafront at Bexhill-on-Sea, the De La Warr arts and entertainments pavilion (1935–6). This long, low, glass, steel and concrete structure was ahead of its time in England and comprised a theatre and restaurant; in the centre of the façade, facing the sea, is its chief architectural feature, a semicircular glazed staircase. Soon Mendelsohn moved on to Palestine, where he was responsible for the Government Hospital at Haifa (1937) and the Hadassah University Medical Centre in Jerusalem (1936); in both cases he skilfully adapted his mode to different climatic needs. He finally settled in the USA in 1941, where his most notable buildings are the Maimonides Hospital in San Francisco and the synagogues and Jewish community centres which he built in a number of American cities.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Born Elinor Coade, she never married but adopted, as was customary in business in the eighteenth century, the courtesy title of Mrs. Following the bankruptcy and death of her father, George Coade, in Exeter, Eleanor and her mother (also called Eleanor) moved to London and founded the works at Lambeth, South London, in 1769 that later became famous as the Coade factory. The factory was located at King's Arms Stairs, Narrow Wall. During the eighteenth century, several attempts had been made in other businesses to manufacture a durable, malleable artificial stone that would be acceptable to architects for decorative use. These substances were not very successful, but Coade stone was different. Although stories are legion about the secret formula supposedly used in this artificial stone, modern methods have established the exact formula.

Coade stone was a stoneware ceramic material fired in a kiln. The body was remarkable in that it shrank only 8 per cent in drying and firing: this was achieved by using a combination of china clay, sand, crushed glass and grog (i.e. crushed and ground, previously fired stoneware). The Coade formula thus included a considerable proportion of material that, having been fired once already, was unshrinkable. Mrs Coade's name for the firm, Coade's Lithodipyra Terra-Cotta or Artificial Stone Manufactory (where "Lithodipyra" is a term derived from three Greek words meaning "stone", "twice" and "fire"), made reference to the custom of including such material (such as in Josiah Wedgwood's basalt and jasper ware). The especially low rate of shrinkage rendered the material ideal for making extra-life-size statuary, and large architectural, decorative features to be incorporated into stone buildings.

Coade stone was widely used for such purposes by leading architects in Britain and Ireland from the 1770s until the 1830s, including Robert Adam, Sir Charles Barry, Sir William Chambers, Sir John Soane, John Nash and James Wyatt. Some architects introduced the material abroad, as far as, for example, Charles Bulfinch's United States Bank in Boston, Massachusetts, and Charles Cameron's redecoration for the Empress Catherine of the great palace Tsarkoe Selo (now Pushkin), near St Petersburg. The material so resembles stone that it is often mistaken for it, but it is so hard and resistant to weather that it retains sharpness of detail much longer than the natural substance. The many famous British buildings where Coade stone was used include the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, Carlton House and the Sir John Soane Museum (all of which are located in London), St George's Chapel at Windsor, Alnwick Castle in Northumberland, and Culzean Castle in Ayrshire, Scotland.

Apart from the qualities of the material, the Coade firm established a high reputation for the equally fine quality of its classical statuary. Mrs Coade employed excellent craftsmen such as the sculptor John Bacon (1740–99), whose work was mass-produced by the use of moulds. One famous example which was widely reproduced was the female caryatid from the south porch of the Erechtheion on the acropolis of Athens. A drawing of this had appeared in the second edition of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens in 1789, and many copies were made from the original Coade model; Soane used them more than once, for example on the Bank of England and his own houses in London.

Eleanor Coade was a remarkable woman, and was important and influential on the neo-classical scene. She had close and amicable relations with leading architects of the day, notably Robert Adam and James Wyatt. The Coade factory was enlarged and altered over the years, but the site was finally cleared during 1949–50 in preparation for the establishment of the 1951 Festival of Britain.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Apart from his considerable architectural practice, Sydney Smirke was responsible, in particular, for two structures in which he utilized the increasingly popular combination of iron and glass, their popularity stemming not least from the fire hazard in urban centres. In 1834 he adapted James Wyatt's Pantheon, the famous concert and masquerade hall in Oxford Street that had been opened in 1772, refitting the building as a shopping centre.

Smirke is best known for his creation of the circular reading room in London's British Museum, which had been designed by his brother Sir Robert Smirke (1823–47). The reading room was designed within a central courtyard, conceived as a circular domed structure by the Chief Librarian and Keeper of the Department of Printed Books, Antonio Panizzi, and executed by Smirke; he covered the courtyard with a cast-iron domed structure (1854–7).

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building

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Wright began his career in 1887 working in the Chicago offices of Adler \& Sullivan. He conceived a great admiration for Sullivan, who was then concentrating upon large commercial projects in modern mode, producing functional yet decorative buildings which took all possible advantage of new structural methods. Wright was responsible for many of the domestic commissions.

In 1893 Wright left the firm in order to set up practice on his own, thus initiating a career which was to develop into three distinct phases. In the first of these, up until the First World War, he was chiefly designing houses in a concept in which he envisaged "the house as a shelter". These buildings displayed his deeply held opinion that detached houses in country areas should be designed as an integral part of the landscape, a view later to be evidenced strongly in the work of modern Finnish architects. Wright's designs were called "prairie houses" because so many of them were built in the MidWest of America, which Wright described as a "prairie". These were low and spreading, with gently sloping rooflines, very plain and clean lined, built of traditional materials in warm rural colours, blending softly into their settings. Typical was W.W.Willit's house of 1902 in Highland Park, Illinois.

In the second phase of his career Wright began to build more extensively in modern materials, utilizing advanced means of construction. A notable example was his remarkable Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, carefully designed and built in 1916–22 (now demolished), with special foundations and structure to withstand (successfully) strong earthquake tremors. He also became interested in the possibilities of reinforced concrete; in 1906 he built his church at Oak Park, Illinois, entirely of this material. In the 1920s, in California, he abandoned his use of traditional materials for house building in favour of precast concrete blocks, which were intended to provide an "organic" continuity between structure and decorative surfacing. In his continued exploration of the possibilities of concrete as a building material, he created the dramatic concept of'Falling Water', a house built in 1935–7 at Bear Run in Pennsylvania in which he projected massive reinforced-concrete terraces cantilevered from a cliff over a waterfall in the woodlands. In the later 1930s an extraordinary run of original concepts came from Wright, then nearing 70 years of age, ranging from his own winter residence and studio, Taliesin West in Arizona, to the administration block for Johnson Wax (1936–9) in Racine, Wisconsin, where the main interior ceiling was supported by Minoan-style, inversely tapered concrete columns rising to spreading circular capitals which contained lighting tubes of Pyrex glass.

Frank Lloyd Wright continued to work until four days before his death at the age of 91. One of his most important and certainly controversial commissions was the Solomon R.Guggenheim Museum in New York. This had been proposed in 1943 but was not finally built until 1956–9; in this striking design the museum's exhibition areas are ranged along a gradually mounting spiral ramp lit effectively from above. Controversy stemmed from the unusual and original design of exterior banding and interior descending spiral for wall-display of paintings: some critics strongly approved, while others, equally strongly, did not.

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